CIHM 
Microfiche 
Series 
(IMonographs) 


ICIMH 

Collection  de 
microfiches 
(monographles) 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  canadien  de  microreproductions  historiques 


'^r-mFm^Mi^gi^^mm 


i-^S^-^M- 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notes  /  Notes  techniques  et  bibliographiques 


The  Institute  has  attempted  to  obtain  the  best  original 
copy  available  for  filming.  Features  of  this  copy  which 
may  be  bibliographically  unique,  which  may  alter  any  of 
the  images  in  the  reproduction,  or  which  may 
significantly  change  the  usual  method  of  filming  are 
checked  below. 


I      I   Coloured  covers  / 


Couverture  de  couleur 


□   Covers  damaged  / 
Couverture  endommag6e 

□   Covers  restored  and/or  laminated  / 
Couverture  restaur^e  et/ou  pellicui^e 

Cover  title  miSuing  /  Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 

I I   Coloured  maps  /  Cartes  g6ographiques  en  couleur 

□   Coloured  ink  (i.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)  / 
Encre  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 

□   Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations  / 
Planches  et/ou  illustrations  en  couleur 

Bound  with  other  material  / 
Reli6  avec  d'autres  documents 

Only  edition  available  / 
Seule  Edition  disponible 

Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion  along 
interior  margin  /  La  reliure  serree  peut  causer  de 
Tombre  ou  de  la  distorsion  le  long  de  la  marge 
interieure. 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restorations  may  appear 
within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these  have  been 
omitted  from  filming  /  Use  peut  que  certaines  pages 
blanches  ajoutees  lors  d'une  restauration 
apparaissent  dans  le  texte,  mais,  lorsque  cela  etait 
possible,  ces  pages  n'ont  pas  ete  fiimees. 

Additional  comments  / 
Commentaires  suppl6mentaires: 


n 


n 


L'Institut  a  microfilm6  le  meilleur  exemplaire  qu'il  lui  a 
6\6  possible  de  se  procurer.  Les  details  de  cet  exem- 
plaire qui  sont  peut-6tre  uniques  du  poini  de  vue  bibli- 
ographique,  qui  peuvent  modifier  une  image  reproduite, 
ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  une  modification  dans  la  m^tho- 
de  normale  de  filmage  sont  indiqu^s  ci-dessous. 

I      I   Coloured  pages  /  Pages  de  couleur 

I I   Pages  damaged  /  Pages  endommag6es 


D 


Pages  restored  and/or  laminated  / 
Pages  restaurdes  et/ou  pellicul^es 

Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed  / 
Pages  ddcolor^es,  tachetees  ou  piquees 

Pages  detached  /  Pages  detach^es 

V    Showthrough  /  Transparence 

I      I   Quality  of  print  varies  / 


l1 

G 


D 


Quality  inegale  de  I'impression 

Includes  supplementary  material  / 
Comprend  du  materiel  supplementaire 

Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata  slips, 
tissues,  etc.,  have  been  refilmed  to  ensure  the  best 
possible  image  /  Les  pages  totalement  ou 
parfiellement  obscurcies  par  un  feuiilet  d'errata,  une 
pelure,  etc.,  ont  ete  fiimees  a  nouveau  de  fa^on  a 
obtenir  la  meilieure  image  possible. 

Opposing  pages  with  varying  colouration  or 
discolourations  are  filmed  twice  to  ensure  the  best 
possible  image  /  Les  pages  s'opposant  ayant  des 
colorations  variables  ou  des  decolorations  sont 
fiimees  deux  fois  afin  d'obtenir  la  meilieure  image 
possible. 


D 


This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below  / 

Ce  document  est  filme  au  taux  de  reduction  indiqu4  ci-desscus. 


lOx 

14x 

18x 

22x 

26x 

30x 

\/ 

12x 


16x 


20x 


24x 


28x 


32x 


i?m 


w^miM^'P'?w%. 


Jpfgy  •  ;  .t:^££3ii 


The  copy  filmed  here  has  been  reproduced  thanks 
to  the  generosity  of: 


L'exemplaire  film*  fut  reproduit  grace  i  la 
gAnArosit6  de: 


University  of  Alberta 
Edmonton 

The  images  appearing  here  are  the  best  quality 
possible  considering  the  condition  and  legibility 
of  the  original  copy  and  in  keeping  with  the 
filming  contract  specifications. 


Uni/ersity  of  Alberta 
Edmonton 

Las  imager  suivantes  ont  6x6  reproduites  avec  le 
p>js  grand  soin.  compte  tenu  de  la  condition  et 
de  la  nettetA  de  l'exemplaire  filmA.  et  en 
conformity  avec  les  conditions  du  contrat  da 
filmage. 


Original  copies  in  printed  paper  covers  are  filmed 
beginning  with  the  front  cover  and  ending  on 
the  last  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, or  the  back  cover  when  appropriate.  All 
other  original  copies  are  filmed  beginning  on  the 
first  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, and  ending  or  the  last  page  with  a  printed 
or  illustrated  impression. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol  ^»>  (meaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  the  symbol  y  (meaning  "END"), 
whichever  applies. 

Maps,  plates,  charts,  etc.,  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratios.  Those  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  exposure  are  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  frames  as 
required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


Les  exemplaires  originaux  dont  la  couverture  en 
papier  est  imprim^e  sont  fiimAs  en  commen^ant 
par  le  premier  plat  et  en  terminant  soit  par  la 
derniire  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration,  soit  par  le  second 
plat,  selon  le  cas.  Tous  les  autres  exemplaires 
originaux  sont  filmAs  en  commenpant  par  la 
premiere  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration  et  en  terminant  par 
la  derniire  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 

Un  des  symboles  sulvants  apparaltra  sur  la 
derniAre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  le  symbole  ^^  signifle  "A  SUIVRE".  le 
symbole  V  signifle  "FIN". 

Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc..  ;  auvent  dtre 
filmis  A  des  taux  da  rMuction  diff^rents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  dtre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  cliche,  ii  est  filmi  i  partir 
de  Tangle  sup^rieur  gauche,  de  gauche  it  droite, 
et  de  haut  en  bas,  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'images  nAcessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
iliustrent  la  mAthode. 


1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

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MICROCOPY    RESOIUTION   TEST   CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  ,-4o    2| 


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ENGINEERING 

OF 

SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


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5^  Qraw'Ml  Book  (h  Tm 

PUBLISHERS     OF     BOOKS      F  O  R_/ 

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ENGINEERING 


■  Tn 


OP 


SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


BY 

HENRY  GRATTx\N  XYRRELL,  C.  E. 

Bridue  and  Structural  Engineer.  EvanHon,  lU  ;  Member  of  the 

ne^ern  Society  of  Engineer;  Society /or  the  Promotion 

of  kngineering  Education,   \ational  Geoeraphic 

Society,  etc;  Author  of:  Conerebt  Bridget  and 

Cutvertt,  Mill  Budding;  HiMory  of 

Bridue    Engineering,  Artittic 

Bridge  Dtexgn. 


First  Edition 

FoCKTH  iMPRESalON 


McGRAW-HILL  BOOK  COMPANY,  Inc 

239  WEST  39TH  STREET.    NEW  YORK 

LONDON:  HILL  PUBLISHING  CO.,  Ltd. 

6  &  8  BOUVERIE  ST.,  B.C. 
1912 


COPYKIOHTED,    1012 
BY 

IIenrt  Grattan  Tyrbell 


THC-UAPLE.PRESU-TORK-PA 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  basod  upcn  the  writer's  personal  observations, 
8tuily  and  experience,  covenng  a  period  of  more  than  twenty 
years  in  this  line  of  work.  It  is  a  secjuel,  and  supplementary  to 
hJH  other  book  entitled  "  Mill  Buildings,"  and,  excepting  in  a 
few  cartes,  parts  which  are  fully  treated  there  are  not  repea;  » 
here.  Additional  information  and  costs  on  some  subjects  have 
been  included,  which  have  come  to  his  attention  since  his  last 
book  was  published. 

Chapter  I.,  entitled  "  Industrial  Engineers  and  Their  Services, " 
should  be  valuable  both  to  engineers  and  factory  owners 
because  it  gives  the  standard  rules  of  conduct  and  business  which 
have  been  established  and  accepted  by  several  of  the  leading 
engineering  societies.  Similar  rules  have  long  existed,  governing 
the  relations  between  architects  and  contractors.  The  chapters 
on  the  economics  of  factory  location  and  construction  are 
included,  because  of  the  enormous  amount  of  money  being 
invested  in  manufacturing  industries.  If  these  plants  are,  at 
first,  wrongly  placed  or  arranged,  no  amount  of  subsequent  good 
management  can  remedy  the  initial  mist  ikes.  Several  chapters 
are  included  on  concrete  buildings  and  ti.iii  .  o.st,  because  of  the 
increasing  use  of  this  material,  -d  iinuh  of  the  objection  to 
the  type  should  Ik)  removed  h  the  exj '  nafim  f  easy  and 
effective  methods  of  su  face      i-atment     o  gi\  em  ..    more 

attractive  appearance.  Such  details  as  foumiatii  .  walls,  roof- 
ing, etc.,  which  are  fully  treated  in  the  auth<.,s  h>ok  ent^  'cd 
"  Mill  Buildings,"  are  mentioned  only  briefly  here  ^pace  u.ny 

be  left  for  other  subjects. 

Several  chapters  originally  contributed  by  th  o  tho 

Engineering  Magazine,  are  reproduced  with  little  hange. 

In  order  to  make  the  book  of  greater  value,  some  of  'hapters 
have  been  prepared  with  the  aid  of  specialis^i  s,  mo.st  ( >i  latcrial 

on  Heating  and  Air  Washing'  being  supplied  by  the  lir  o  Fo.-Ke 
Company,  and  that  on  Artihcial  Lighting  by  the  W  es;  house 
Electric  Company.     Many  of  the  illustrations  are  from  i 


;^^ 


o 


^j 


VI 


PREFACE 


of  Engineering  Xrirn,  Knglnnring  liininl,  Rnihvaij  Agr  (InziHe 
mill  otiicr  joiinialH. 

The  l)<)i»k  i.s  disipu'il  to  nid  all  who  arc  intiTOMfcd  in  «hop« 
ami  factories,  and  cHpecially  ciinincctH,  arfhitt-cts,  draftniiu'ii  and 
students,  as  well  as  factory  owners  and  cniphr.  ««'m. 

H.  (I.  Tyrrell. 

KVANMTOV,    I1XIVOI8. 
(Miihrr,    1012. 


i 


COXTKNTS 

Pkefa.k    ...  •**"■ 

,  V 

JVTHODrcTION    .      .      . 

XV 

<'IIAI'Ti:il  I 

Enoinkkhk  a(.      1       K  Services j 

nuil.llr.R  I'l.. „,,--%  Whom  Ma<l(— CoMt  of  KiipncHring  S,.rviro8— 
Hull's  of  tho  Engineers'  Cl.ih  of  St.  Loui.s— .Vmorican  Institute  of 
('onsultit.K  Lngineein,  (^ode  of  Ethic«— Am<rirun  InMitute  of 
(•oiiHultiiiK  EnginoerH,  Schedule  of  Fees— Form  of  Contract  Bctw.  i 
Engineer  anil  Owner— Short  Form  of  Contract. 

CHAPTER  II 

M.\xt;rACTURiNa  Disthict 12 

Seiertion  of  Manufacturing  Distriet— f-  y  or  Sutiur»>— Coi,t  of 
Land— Labor  Supply— Nearness  to  l!:,w  .Materials-  Nearness  to 
Souree  of  IV. wer— Shipping  and  Freighting  Facilities— Climate- 
Market  for  I'roduet— Selection  of  lluilding  Lot. 

CHAPTER  III 

E< ONdMlc-      „y   FAfTOUV    Co.N.STHUCTION Jo 

Proposed  Methods  of  Manufacture -Mcthwls  of  Management- 
Particulars  of  Similar  Plants-Schedule  of  Machiner>— Arrange- 
nient  of  Machines -Area  and  Elevation  of  Floors  in  Each  Depart- 
ment-Receiving, Storing  and  Shipping  Facilities -Provision  for 
Expansion  -  Arrangement  for  Departments -Approximate  De- 
sign of  Buildings -Approximate  Cost  Estimates. 

CHAPTER  IV 

Example  of  Pbeliminart  Design 34 

location -Size  of  Lot— Grading— Arrangement  of  Yard— Eco- 
nomic Production— Co-operation  witli  Machine  Shop  and  Foundry 
—Scope  of  Plant— Future  Extension— Method  of  Constructing 
Buildmgs— Forge  Shop,  Building  and  Tools— Template  Shop, 
Building  and  Machiner>-— Riveting  Shop,  Building  and  Equip- 
ment-Loading Facili'ies— Erecting  Tools  and  Machinery- 
Power— Cost  of  Complete  Plant— Temporary  Plant.  Tools  Re- 
quired—Cost of  Temporary  Plani— Profit  on  "investment. 

vii 


via 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 
CHAPTEH  V 


I'auk 

GkNKRAI,   I)KMI(iN 42 

Aesthetic  Treat  iiieiit — Wiiiil  Pre.ssureH  ^  Floor  I,ou(In — Unit 
Stress — Stress  Analysis  in  Building  Frames — Knee  Uraees — 
Specifications. 

CHAPTER  VI 

SELECTION    OF    HuiLDIKO    TvPE 52 

Kind  of  liuilding  Materia! — Essentials  of  Good  Framing — Vibra- 
tion and  Oscillation — Depreciation — Insurance — Roof  Outlines. 

CHAPTER  VII 

W(K)U    AND    StKKL    FhA.MINO fll 

Timtx  r  Framing — Cost  of  Timber  Framing — Steel  Framing — 
Framing  of  Domes — Long  Span  Roof.s — Co.st  of  Steel  Frame 
Uuildings. 

CHAPTER  VHI 

CONCRKTK     HlII.DINUS 102 

Advantages  of  Concrete — Disadvantages  of  Concrete — Materials 
and  Mixing— Design — Permissible  I'nits— Separately  Moulded 
Members— (  'limns — Heams — Machinery  Connection  to  P'loors — 
Shafting  Attachments — Waterproofing — Erection. 

CHAPTER  iX 

CoNCHKTE  Si-hfacf;  Fimsic      125 

Surface  Defects:  Hair  Cracks,  Porosity,  Dusting,  Irregularity  of 
Forms— Need  of  Treatment — Method  of  Treatment — Surface 
Coating:  Washing,  Painting— Veneering:  Brick  and  Stone  Facing, 
PInslcring,  Stucco — Surface  Removal,  Coloring,  Preparation  of 
Surface:  ,-iand  Blasting,  Tooling,  Rulibing,  Picking,  Scrubbing, 
Pebble  D;i,-hing,  Acid  Etching. 

CHAPTFU  X 

CcsT  or  RKiNFoncKn  Coxcrkte  Brii.DiNcis         140 

Cost  of  Buildings— Cost  Analysis  of  Comrete  and  Forms. 

CHAPTER  XI 

COMPARATIVK     CosT    OK     Woon,     RkINKOUCKD     Co.VcnETE     AND     StEEL 

Bi;ii,DiNr.s 147 

First  Cost — Tlliniate  Cost— Wood  and  Reinforced  Concrete 
Compared — Reinforced  Concrete  and  Steel  Compared. 


CHAPTER  XII 


FODNDATIONS 


I.oad.i  on  i-oiMidntiim^-      H.-.iring  Power  of  Soil.i — Area  oH  Soii- 
Foundatiou  Walls— Piers — Piles — Machinery  Foundations. 


152 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XIII 


IX 

Paqb 
158 


(Jnoiisi)  Fi.ooKs 

i:arth  I'loors — Wood  IJlotkt*— Plank  Floors — Tar-coneretc  and 
Wood— ( ^cment-concrote  Floors — (Jranolif hie  Finish — Asphalt — 
Brick — Recommended  Types. 

CHAPTER  XIV 

Upper  Floors 172 

Slow-burning  Wood  Floors — Safe  Load  on  Plank — Wood  Floors 
with  Steel  Beams — Triangular  Sheet  Steel  Floors — Multiplex 
Floors — Metal  Arches — Metal  Troughs — Plate  Floors — Brick 
Arches. 

CHAPTER  XV 

Concrete  Upper  Floors 17g 

Concrete  Beams  and  Wood  Flooring— Floors  with  Concrete 
Beams  and  Slabs — Flat  Slab  Floors — Thickness  of  Flat  Slabs. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

Walls,  Partitions  and  Ofeni.vos 

Brick  Walls— Vitrified  Tile  Walls— Concrete  Block  Walls— Cem- 
ent Brick  Walls — Monolitliic  Concrete — Wooden  Framing — 
Comparative  Cost  of  Frame,  Veneer  and  Brick  Vi'alls — Partitions — 
Windows — Doors. 

CHAPTER  XVII 

Roofs  and  Roofing 

Roof  Covering — Thickness  of  Roof  Boards — Concrete  Ro<jfs — Con- 
crete Shingles — Concrete  Tiles. 


188 


199 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

Special  Buildino.s — Notes  on 203 

The  Drafting  Office — Machine  Sliops — Forge  Shops — Foundries — 
Engine  or  Roundhouses — Car  Sheds — Car  Houses — Cotton  Mills — 
Power  Houses. 


CH.M'TER  XIX 

Storaoe  Pockets  and  Hoistinq  Tower.s  .    , 
Hoisting  Towers. 


219 


CHAPTER  XX 

Factory   Heating      229 

Apparatus  for  Fan  System— Heat  Losses — Fan  System  and 
Direct  Radiation  Compared — Systems  of  Air  Supply — Systems  of 
Air  Distribution — Advantages  of  the  Fan  System — Utilization  of 
Waste  Heat — Air  Economizer — Heating  with  Exhaust  Steam — 


TABLE  OF  COX TENTS 


Pag 


niAl'Tint  XX  iCuMiNnHr)) 

Flexibility  of  Operation— Fir.' ♦,  Cost— Tli..  \'iiciium  Syslcni^ 
Roundliousp  Installation — Application  to  Textile  J'ills — Fan  Sys- 
tem in  Paper  Mills— Fan  System  in  Paint  ShopM — Steam  Heating 

Heating  by  Floor  Radiation. 


CHAPTER  XXI 


Am    Washi.\(!  Sy.stkms 


Construction  of  I'.liminators — Action  of  Eliminators— Spray  Cham- 
bers—Pumps— Hygrodeik-lJas  Heaters— General  Arrangement- 
Operation. 

CHAPTER  XXII 


25' 


»J7 


I'ACTOUY     I.KillTINii 

The  Candle-power  of  Inits— Relation  of  Lighting  Problems  to 
Efficient  Management — Importance  of  Cioo<l  Illumination  in  Fac- 
tory Work— Relative  Cost  Fact(jrs  of  Light— General  Require- 
ments—Items Rearing  on  Effective  Illumination— Classification  of 
Problems  in  Factory  'Work- Overhead  Method  of  Lighting— 
Examples— Glare— Sliielding  Effect  of  Girders— Selection  of 
Lamps — Number  of  Lamps  per  irnit  of  Floor  Space — 250-Watt 
versus  100-Watt  Units— Size  of  Lamps— Mounting  Height  of 
T'nits  Above  Floor — Illumination  of  Vertical  Surfaces — Reflectors 
for  Uniform  Illumination:  Test  for  Uniformity,  Value  of  Light 
Ceilings,  Lighting  Circuits,  Switch  Control— Placing  of  Switches— 
The  Working  Drawing — .Maintenance  Problems:  Cleaning  Reflec- 
tors, Cost  Comparisons,  Illumination  Data — Typical  Factory 
Lighting  Problem:  Ligliting  Retjuirements,  f^xperiments  and 
Steps  Leading  to  Final  Arrangement,  Xotes  on  Final  Arrangement — 
Conmients  on  Lighting  System. 

CH.VPTEi:  XXIII 

DuMNAOF-    OF  Industhim,  Wokk.s 281 

The  Drainage  of  Ruildings— The  Drainage  of  Plants— \'entilation 
of  Sewers-Flushing  of  Sewers— Pneumatic  System — Conserva- 
tion of  Sewage — I        1  Disposal  of  Sewage. 

CHAPTER  XXIV 

Wateu   Sfi'Pi.r  Axi)  SToi{A(iK  Ta.nks 297 

Comparative  Designs— Selection  of  Style— Standard  Dimensions 
for  Steel  Tanks- Capacity  of  Cylindrical  Tanks — Capacity  of 
Pumps— Horsepower  Required  to  Raise  Water  to  Different 
Heights — Fire  Streams — Friction  of  Water  in  Pipes. 


CHAPTER  XXV 


Stkkl.  Chim.nkv.-j 


316 


LIST  OF  TABLES  xi 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

Pac;e 

FiHE   Protection 3J9 

Methods    of    Protection — Fireproof    Materials — Arrangement    of 
Departments — Protective  Systems — Inspection — Fire  Drill. 

CHAPTER  XXVII 

Cranes 327 

Hand  Traveling  Shop  Crane — Specification  for  Hand  Traveling 
Cranes. 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 

Y.\nDs   AND  Tran-spoutatiox 330 

Track  Arrangement — Motors — Loading  and  Conveying  Apparatus. 

CHAPTER  XXIX 

Estimates 335 

Single-story  Metal  Working  Shops— Multi-story  Automobile  Fac- 
tory. 

CHAPTER  XXX 

Construction 354 

Estimates  and  Tenders — Contracts — Superintendence. 

CH.VPTER  XXXI 

Welfare  Featukes 357 

Social    Relations — Health    Condition.s — Pleasant    Surroundii  i.s 

Material     Benefits — Educational    .\dvantages — Opportunity     lu. 
Recreation. 

CHAPTER  XXXII 

Standard    Ruildi.ncs 304 

BiBLioGRArnv      339 

Index 395 


LIST  OF  TABLES 

Taui-e  p^a, 

I.  Approximate  Insurance  Charges 54 

II.  Approximate  Insurance  Cliarges 55 

III.  Strength  of  Spikes  and  Nails 04 

I V.  Cost  of  Woo'i  Buildings C7 

v.  'Weight  of  Steel  in  Multi-story  Buildings UK) 

VI.  Cement  Production  in  the  United  States 103 

VII.  "imparativeCost  of  Monolith  and  Unit  Concrete  Systems  .  115 

VIII.     ost  of  ("olor  Pigments 132 

IX.  (\>st  of  Reinforced  Concreto  Buildings 141 

X.  Cost  of  Reinforced  Concrete  Buildings 142 

XI.  Cost  Analysis  of  Concrete  Buildings 143 

XII.  C  -".parative  Cost  of  Wood  and  Reinforced  Concrete     .    .  149 

XIII.  Comparative  Cost  of  Reinforced  Concrete  and  Steel   .    .    .  1.51 

XIV.  Bearing  Power  of  Soils 153 

XV.  Safe  Load  on  Plank       172 

XVI.  Safe  Load  oii  Multiplex  Steel  Plate  I'loors 175 

XVII.  Thickness  of  Flat  Slabs 185 

XVII i.  Cost  of  Veneer,  Frame  and  Soli<l  AValls l<)3 

XIX.  Roof  Coverings 1<)9 

XX.  Strength  of  Roof  Boards      200 

XXI.  Weight  of  Galvanized  Iron  Pipes 24a 

XXII.  Carrying  Capacity  of  Pipes 247 

XXIII.  Lighting  Systems 274 

XXIV.  Dimensions  of  Tanks 310 

XXV.  Capacity  of  Tanks 311 

XXVI.  Capacity  of  Pumps 312 

XXVII.  Required  Horsepcnver  to  Raise  Water 313 

XXVIII.  Fire  Streams 314 

XXIX.  Friction  of  Water  in  Pipes 315 

XXX.  Standard  Buildings — Size  of  Material 3t)7 

XXXI.  Standard  Buildings — Roof  Trusses 374 

XXXII.  Standard  Buildings — Monitor  Framing 375 

XXXIII.  Standard  Buildings — Side  Posts  and  Knee  Braces  .    .    .    .   376 

XXXIV.  Standi-    '  Buildings— End  Panel,  Roof  Purlins 378 

XXXV.  Stanili  lildings — Intermediate  Panel,  Roof  Purlins.    .    .'.79 

XX.VVI.  Staiulii         .uildings — iMids  of  Buildings — Diagrams   .    ,    .  380 

XXXVII.  Standard  Buildings — Ends  of  Buildings — Sizes 381 

X.XXVIII.  Standard  Buildings — Rafter  Bracing 383 

XXXIX.  Standard  Buildings — Tie  Beam  Bracing 384 

XL.  Standard  Buildings — Connection  Details 385 

XLI.  Standard  Buildings — Material  for  Side  Posts 386 

XLII,  Standard  Buildings — Side  Purlins .388 

xiii 


INTRODUCTION 


The  building  of  shops  and  factories  has  developed  in  the  last 
few  years  into  one  of  the  largest  branches  of  modern  business. 
Those  who  were  formerly  content  to  carry  on  manufacturing  in 
shops  of  the  old  type  have  long  since  discovered  that  the  build- 
ings themselves  can  be  made  one  of  the  largest  factors  in  economic 
production,  and  more  ade(iuate  ones  are  everywhere  in  evidence. 
Goods  of  great  value  were  formerly  made  and  stored  in  buildings 
which  were  improperly  lighted,  heated  and  ventilated,  and  liable 
at  any  time  ^  ■  be  destroyed  by  fire.  As  a  partial  protection 
against  loss,  heavy  insurance  was  often  carried,  with  a  corre- 
sponding charge  against  the  business.  From  inadequate 
ventilation,  the  building  interiors  were  often  smoky  and  dusty, 
and  valuable  goods  were  in  constant  danger  of  being  soiled.  In 
many  cities  and  districts,  especially  where  soft  coal  was  used  for 
fuel,  the  atmosphere  was  loaded  with  smoke,  and  the  depreciation 
of  goods  was  often  a  serious  loss. 

The  planning  and  arranging  of  plants  was  formerly  done  by 
their  owners  or  managers,  who  made  little  or  no  provision  for 
their  extension  or  development,  and  who  considered  that  business 
success  depended  wholly  upon  good  management.  It  was  then 
the  belief  that  the  buildings  were  of  little  importance,  but  it  is  now 
well  known  that  they  can  ind  should  be  arranged  and  designed 
to  facilitate  production  to  the  greatest  extent.  As  the  building 
of  plants  has  increased,  and  steel  and  concrete  have,  to  a  large 
extent,  replaced  wood  as  a  structural  material,  the  assistance  of 
engineers  and  architects  have  been  sought,  not  only  in  planning 
the  buildings,  but  in  installing  ai;d  arranging  their  equipment. 
Business  in  this  direction  has  increased  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
give  employment  to  a  large  num})er  of  men  known  as  Industrial 
Engineers,  who  are  especially  trained  in  the  planning  and  building 
of  shops  and  factories.  These  men,  giving  special  study  to  the 
economics  of  mpnufacturing  plants  both  as  to  construction  and 
operation,  are  frequently  able  in  addition  to  other  services,  to 
give  valuable  advice  and  assistance  to  owners. 


XVI 


INTRODUCTION 


I'liifcipiiscs  hiivc  usually  begun  in  rented  spuce  or  in  small 
l)uil(linf;.s  owned  by  tlu-ir  occupants,  and  extensions  are  {generally 
the  outfonie  of  small  beginnings.  New  shops  nuiy  consist  of 
additions  to  old  plants,  or  entirely  new  buildings  may  l)e  erected 
on  a  more  commodious  site,  the  latter  method  giving  the  largest 
opportunity  for  economic  design  and  arrangement.  The 
efficiency  of  a  new  plant,  or  its  capability  of  producing  at  mini- 
mum cost,  depends  to  a  great  extent  on  the  thought  and  study 
which  has  been  given  to  shop  economics,  previous  to  the  begin- 
ning of  building  operations.  Efficiency  is  greatly  hindered 
when  a  building  is  unsuited  to  its  use,  and  defects  which  are 
discovered  after  completion  are  usually  too  expensive  to  remedy. 
The  need  is,  therefore,  evident  for  very  careful  planning  and 
study  before  beginning  the  detail  drawings,  and  such  investiga- 
tions are  by  far  the  most  important  part  of  the  engineer's  work. 
The  building  should  be  considered  merely  as  a  part  of  one  great 
industrial  machine,  the  various  men  and  tools  all  fulfilling  their 
respective  tluties,  and  working  harmoniously  together  with  the 
greatest  efficiency  and  the  least  total  cost. 

To  have  any  prospects  of  successful  operation,  amid  present 
industrial  competition,  a  plant  must  be  in  an  advantageous 
district,  must  be  economically  designed  and  well  arranged,  and 
have  low  maintenance  cost.  When  these  ends  are  attained,  its 
further  success  will  depend  upon  good  judgment  and  careful 
buying,  combined  witli  otiier  established  principles  of  business, 
such  as  reputation  for  honesty  and  fair  dealing. 

The  extent  and  importance  of  manufacturing  industries  can 
best  be  appreciated  by  a  consideration  of  the  following  approxi- 
mate data  relating  to  the  whole  United  Stutes. 

Kumber  of  manufacturies 240,000 

Capital  invested $21,000,000,000 

Number  of  employees 7,000,000 

Wages  earned  per  year $  4,000,000,000 

Value  of  materials  used $18,000,000,000 

Value  of  products $30,000,000,000 


The  approximate  costs  given  throughout  the  book  apply  only 
to  the  conditions  given,  and  will  change  according  to  the  time 
and  place  and  with  the  local  rate  of  wages  ;  al  the  cost  of  building 
supplies.  Trices  in  the  Northern  States  are  quite  different  to 
those  in  the  Southern  and  Western  States,  and  may  hardly 


INTRODUCTION 


xvii 


approximate  those  obtainable  in  other  countries.  They  must, 
therefore,  be  used  with  great  caution,  for  otherwise  they  nuiy 
lead  to  serious  errors.  When  estimating  costs,  the  engineer 
should  familiarize  himself  with  prices  and  condition  in  the  dis- 
trict where  goods  and  labor  must  be  purchased. 


■^^^.7^^^'-w'r'^^^^:^'^wii^'^-*'W''T£^T'^jr' 


KNTJINEKKING  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 

CHAI'TKll  I 
ENGINEERS  AND  THEIR  SERVICES 

Buildin?  Plans.  %  Whom  .U</»/r.— Wlion  a  c.nipany  hns 
dfciilcil  lo  fiiMl  iH-w  huildinjr.s  or  cxtcn.sions,  tho  work  is  usually 
wanted  in  the  shortest  time  possible.  One  of  the  first  duties  of 
the  company  will  l,e  tho  Helection  of  one  or  .noro  men  to  work 
out  the  plans.  This  work  is  sc.inetimes  divided  between  two 
men  or  sets  of  men,  the  first  heiuK  meehanieal  or  plant  enj:in(<ers 
aiul  the  others,  structural  engineers,  each  -roup  of  men  hein^ 
trained  in  a  special  line  of  work.  In  other  cases  the  whole  work 
IS  undertaken  by  one  enftineer  or  en^MneeriuK  firm.  Wlien  a 
plant  enjtineer  is  first  employed,  it  is  his  duty  to  investiftate  all 
matters  pertaining'  to  th(>  arranfiement  of  mac'iiinery  and  depart- 
ments, and  to  carry  on  preliminary  .studies  as  outlined  in  Chapters 
II  and  III,  under  the  direction  of,  and  in  consultation  with  the 
plai.  owners.  He  will,  in  fact,  outline  the  whole  scheme  and 
furnish  the  .structural  engineer  with  preliminary  plans  and 
approxinuite  cost  estimates.  (See  Tyrrell's  Mill  Buildings, 
pa-ie  12.)  This  greatly  simplifies  work  for  the  structural 
engineer,  as  his  .lutics  then  relate  chiefly  to  matters  of  building 
construction  and  economic  tlesign. 

When   the  whole  work   of  planning  a  plant,   including  tl 
preliminary,  mechanical  and  constru.'tive  details  is  entru.sted  to 
one  nuin  or  firm,  the  duties  of  the  engineer  are  greatly  enlarged 
and   it   is   this   condition   which   is  assumetl  in   the  following 
discussion.  "^ 

When  looking  about  for  persons  to  make  investigations  and 
prepare  designs  and  drawings,  the  plant  owner  usually  finds 
that  this  work  may  be  done  in  at  least  four  different  ways. 

1.  By  the  company's  draftsmen  ,mder  the  direction  of  the 
owner. 

'-'.By  (he  company's  draftsmen  under  the  supervision  of  a 
specially  employed  industrial  engine(>r. 

3.  By  a  contracting  firm  expecting  to  .secure  a  contract  for 
construction. 

4.  By  a  consulting  engineer  or  firm,  with  staff  assistance. 

1 


> 


•"*!>■• 'I*-^ 


2         /,  \r,7.V /•;/■; /i7\7;  of  SIKH'S  .WD  h.U'TOIilES 

1.  The  first,  of  tlii'so  hh'IIkkIs  often  iippearH  to  owners  to  bo 
the  theapest  imil  most  iittiactive,  for  phms  wouhl  then  lie  ob- 
tained at  cost  price.  The  ilisadvantaRe  is,  that  shop  draftsmen 
iieciistonied  to  working  on  machinery  parts,  are,  as  a  rule, 
nnfamiliiir  with  Ixiildiiij;  const nic' ion,  and  the  owner  oi  nianaper 
who  may  be  thorouiihly  familial  with  inanufactnrinK  methods 
and  works  mana>remeiit .  <'veii  tl  u;;li  lie  may  in  earlier  years 
have  been  an  expert  draftsman,  -lo  lon<;er  has  time  to  keej) 
himself  informed  <>ii  >w\\  matters,  .\nother  di.sadvantajie  of 
this  method  is  that  the  owner  and  his  draft inj;  force  are  not  in 
possession  of  data  pertaining  to  mamifactnrinj;  plants  in  gei\eral, 
and  their  time  is  too  fully  occupied  with  otlier  duti(>s  to  permit 
tiu'm  to  concentrate  thought  on  this  important  work.  The 
successful  man!i<;er  of  a  woolen  mill  would  ciMtairdy  not  attempt 
to  manufactiir(>  the  iiuu  liinery  for  his  mill,  and  for  the  same 
reason  he  can  hardly  be  expected  to  proficiently  design  tho 
details  of  factory  building;. 

2.  The  secoiiil  method  of  securing  plans,  in  wiiich  the  owner 
employs  an  industrial  engineer  to  work  out  the  designs  and 
drawings  with  the  assistance  of  the  plant  draftsmen,  is  unsatis- 
factory for  tho  same  reason  as  stated  before,  that  such  men  arc 
rarely  familiar  with  structural  work  or  building  construction. 
If  special  draftsmen  arc  employetl  under  the  directimi  of  an 
industrial  engineer,  the  result  is  practically  tho  same  as  when  a 
consulting  engineer  or  firm  is  employed,  for,  if  proficient,  ho 
will  expect  responsible  charge.  If  he  is  not  tiiorougiily  proficient 
and  Is  willing  to  give  his  services  for  little  more  than  draftsmen 
re<'eive,  it  is  hardly  probable  that  a  works  manager  would,  on 
second  thought,  be  willing  to  entrust  him  vviili  tho  planning  of 
buildings  involving  the  expenditure  of  a  large  sum  of  money. 
Tiie  law  of  economic  construction  sliould  be  remembered,  which 
is — that  in  tlie  building  of  plants,  tiie  greatest  efficiency  and 
economy  are  ol)tained  only  when  the  work  is  under  the  direction 
of  a  thoroughly  proficient  and  experienced  por.son. 

3.  The  acceptance  by  an  owner  of  a  comi)etitive  design  (Fig.  1) 
from  a  firm  lioi)ing  to  I'eceiv-'  a  contract  for  the  work,  is  (pies- 
tionable  practice  and  oft<  n  vinsatisfactory.  Contractors  who 
make  a  practice  of  getting  work  in  this  way,  expecting  to  secure 
only  part  perhaps  one-fifth -of  all  work  for  which  they  make 
piiihs,  lausi  add  to  each  bid,  the  cost  of  making  plans  fur  the 
Other  four-fifths.     Therefore^  instead  of  paying  for  one  set  of 


■-.l^'W^y^^S^^Sy' r!i 'ffl 


i:\(ifM:i:i{s  .\m>  rirniu  shinicrus 


jilans.  the  ownrr  imi.-«t.  really  pay  for  at  lenMt  fiv«'  sots,  with  n 
poswililt  increase  to  ten  or  more,  if  the  contractor  in  Hiiccessfiil  ia 
a  less  nuinher  of  cases.  To  compensate  for  this  contracting 
CYpeiiMe,  and  yet  keep  the  cost  down  t<j  what  it  would  he  if  there 
was  only  one  set  of  [)lans  to  pay  for,  the  contractor  inist  uso 
cheaper  or  lighter  i..  n.rial,  with  a  corresponding  reduction  in 
strength.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  owner  receives  plans  from 
only  one  contractor  and  awards  a  contract  on  a  unit  or  tonnajjo 
basis,  he  may  then  he  ohlij^ed  to  pay  for  extra  weij;ht  or  material. 
A  structural  company  for  which  the  writer  was  enRinoer,  once 
recoi'-ed  a  contract  for  several  lar-re  steel  frame  l>uildin>:s  on  a 


I'll..   1.— 1  actory  buiUiins  for  Scott  ^:  liownc,  Hlooiiilielil,  N.  J. 

tonnage  basis  and  Instead  of  supply inp;  the  ptirchaser  with  a 
rational  desi;;:,,  the  proprietors  of  the  structural  company 
insisted  on  usinj;  exce.s.s  material  to  such  an  extent  that  riveted 
steel  column.;  were  made  of  plates  and  iin^les  i  in.  tiiick, 
wiicn  ,',pin.  thickness  was  .sufhcieiit,  with  corresponding  waste 
in  other  jiaits, 

A  better  way  of  .securiiij;  plan 
conscientious  structui.il  en.2;ii;' 
serve  tlie  best  intcr.-sts  of  his  ( 
the  best  results  that  are  obtain:" 
he  receives.     Better  results  u^ 


!-  'o  enipl  )y  a  competent  and 
'    'f       •  '■  ■  oiiject   will  bo  to 

T  •,  :  '..  i-r  should  then  e:et 
•iHu  |):iy  iijiiy  .or  service  which 

■''•.7,-  l.v  !(  iving  details  of 


''^^Dt^m^. 


4         KXalNEERIMl  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 

construction  to  the  ongincor,  who  is  hotter  qualified  than  the 
owufM-  to  make  such  selection.  Tiie  emi)loymciit  of  a  consult inj; 
oiifiincer  may  result  in  a  larjier  ann  unt  of  money  beinp;  paid  for 
engineering  service,  than  if  such  work  were  attempted  or  done 
by  draftsmen  in  the  owner's  office;  but  if  the  consulting  engineer 
is  honest  and  proficient,  he  should  give  value  many  times  for 
the  money  received,  and  the  result  should  be  bettor  service  and 
lower  ultimate  cost.  The  rule  previously  stated  will  nearly 
always  apply — that  the  greatest  degree  of  efficiency  and  economy 
on  construction  work  is  secured  only  when  it  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  an  expericnceil,  proficient  and  conscientious  person. 
Such  nioTi,  by  their  superior  knowledge  are  able  to  save  money  for 
their  clients,  and  to  show  results  corresponding  to  the  degree  of 
confidence  which  can  be  placed  upon  them. 

The  (iiialities  needed  in  an  industrial  engineer  are  knowledge 
and  experience,  together  with  enough  force  of  character  to  claim 
and  hold  the  confidence  of  those  with  whom  he  is  doing  business. 
lie  must  be  able  to  design,  illustrate  and  superintend  h"s  work, 
or  to  direct  ot heis  in  such  duties.  While  he  must  have  a  general 
kno\vl(Mlg(>  of  his  whole  business,  he  should  have  among  his 
assistants,  men  specially  trained  in  different  kinds  of  work,  as, 
for  instance,  one  or  more  draftsmen  on  mechanical  eciuipment, 
another  on  architectural  drawings  and  perspectives. 

The  word  "engineer"  is  used  instead  of  "architect,"  in  the 
above  discussion,  for  industrial  problems  pertaining  chiefly  to 
construction  and  efficiency  arc  better  understood  by  engineers 
than  arcliitects.  It  is  true  that  many  persons  calling  themselves 
"architects"  are  among  the  most  skillful  workers  on  industrial 
jihints,  but  th(\se  persons  might  better  be  called  engineers  rather 
than  arcliitects,  since  architecture  is  usually  accepted  as  relating 
more  particularly  to  the  esthetics  of  design  and  construction. 
The  results  have,  however,  been  excellent,  for  factory  Iniildings 
are  now  made  which  are  not  only  serviceable  but  also  ornamental. 
The  works  management  should  delegate  some  one  person  to 
represent  them  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  new  buildings, 
so  there  may  be  no  misunderstanding  of  orders.  This  person 
should  clearly  explain  to  the  engineer  all  recpiiremonts  of  the 
owners,  and  should  thorougidy  inform  him  on  all  matters  that 
are  not  clear  to  him. 

Cost  of  Engineering  Service.— In  the  following  paragraphs,  it 
is  assumed  as  axiomatic  that  the  best  service  with  greatest 


ENGINEERS  AND  THEIR  SERVICES  5 

efficiency  and  least  cost  Is  obtained  from  those  who  are  compe- 
tent, experienced  and  conscientious,  even  though  these  (lualities 
are  often  liard  to  find  in  one  person.  Owners  are  usually  unwill- 
ing to  entrust  important  matters  involving  the  expenditure 
of  large  sums  of  money,  to  novices  or  beginners.  It  may,  there- 
fore, be  assumed  that  in  employing  an  engineer,  the  owner  will 
prefer  a  man  whose  experience  and  ability  would  enable  him  to 
earn  an  income  of  at  least  $4500  to  $0000  per  year,  or  $15  to  $20 
per  day.  He  should  in  any  case  be  paid  enough  to  place  him 
beyond  the  need  of  resorting  to  questionable  transactions  in 
order  to  make  a  living.  As  the  general  expense  of  an  engineering 
office  will  amount  to  about  as  much  as  the  bill  of  wages,  the 
actual  cost  without  profit  for  the  services  of  such  an  engineer 
alone  would  be  $30  to  $40  per  day.  Mininmm  charges  of  $40  to 
$50  per  day  are  therefore  quite  reasonable. 

The  following  are  the  charges  made  a  few  years  ago  by  a  firm 
of  architects  and  engineers  where  the  writer  was  chief  engineer, 
the  percentage  being  on  the  total  cost  of  work. 


ppr  cent. 
]«'r  ct'iit. 

|)('r  I'piit. 
]H'r  coiit. 


SCHEDULE  OF  CHARGES 

Preliminary  studies  only 1 

Preliminjiry  studies,  general  drawings  and  si)ecifications 2i 

Preliminary  studies,  general  drawings,  siwcifications  and 

details .'U 

Full  professional  s<*r\ices  including  suiwrvislon .5 

Commission  comjiuted  on  entire  cost  of  work. 

Traveling  expenses  to  be  i)ald  by  clients. 

Two  and  one-half  i)er  cent,  is  due  when  drawings  and  ^pecifica- 
tions  are  ready  for  contractors,  and  1 '.  jjer  cent,  when  con- 
tract is  let. 

Under  present  prices  (1912)  a  con/mission  of  5  pc>r  cent,  should 
apply  only  to  very  large  and  plain  buildings  without  much  de- 
tail. For  smaller  buildings  or  more  complicated  ones,  the 
commission  should  be  not  less  than  0  per  cent.  In  preliminary 
work,  as  it  is  often  difficult  to  detern'ine  the  value  upon  which 
to  base  the  engineer's  commission,  it  may  be  more  definite  and 
satisfactory  to  undertake  such  work  on  a  fixed  charge  per  day  for 
the  engineer,  with  extra  compensation  for  each  assistant,  travel- 
ing or  other  extra  expenses  to  be  paid  by  the  owners. 

The  customary  charges,  anil  agreements  between  owners  and 
engineers,  can  best  be  shown  by  giving  the  regulations  of  several 
Engineering  Societies. 


0      i:.\(;i.\i:i:i{i.\(!  of  shops  a.M)  factohiks 

PliOl'-KSSIONAL     SKltVICKS     OF     C'ONSII.TI.NG     ANU     CoNSTULCTION 

lO.Nr.INKKlirf 

(Engineers  Clul)  t)f  St.  Louis.) 

Schedule  of  Charges. — The  following;  scliedule  of  chiirRcs  is 
ihteiuli-d  as  a  fiuiilo  to  enginoors  and  their  clients.  It  is  adopted 
as  representing  fair  and  i)roper  (■oni])ensation  for  engineering 
services  under  the  conditioiis  stated,  and  is  Ijelieved  to  conform 
to  the  established  practice  of  leading  American  engineers.  The 
propriety  of  a  per  diem  or  percentage  charge  is  recognized, 
varj'ing  in  amount  acconling  to  tiie  magnitude  or  importance  of 
the  work  involved,  or  the  experience  and  reputation  of  the 
engineer.  The  riglit  is  reserved  to  dejjart  from  the  scliedule  at 
any  time  if  such  action  seems  wise  and  pi'ojx'r. 

1 .  For  jireliminary  study  and  report,  j  i)on  a  project,  or  examina- 
tion of  a  project  prepared  liy  another  engineer  and  a  rei)ort  on  same: 

a.  Charges,  SoO  to  SlOO  per  day  for  the  lirst  two  to  ten  days, 
and  S2.')  to  ?")0  ])er  day  thereafter,  i)lus  all  expenses,  including 
salaries  paid  assistants  witli  an  allowance  of  '2o  per  cent,  of  such 
salaries  for  general  oilice  exj^'uses. 

b.  In  lieu  of  tlie  al)ove,  at  the  option  of  the  engineer,  a  pt-rcent- 
age  charge  varying  from  1  to  21  per  cent. 

2.  For  ])i-eliminary  study,  rei)ort  and  final  detail  drawings  and 
specilications: 

Charges  same  as  under  paragraph  (1  <()  or  at  t\w  ojjtion  of  the 
engineei',  charges  of  '.i\  ])er  ciMit. 

',i.  For  |)relinunary  study  and  report,  preparing  detail  drawings 
and  specilications,  awanling  contracts  and  acting  in  a  general 
sui)er\isory  capacity  during  construction,  including  office  con- 
sultation but  not  including  continuous  supervision,  inspection, 
testing  or  nuiiuigenient-work  costing  .S1(),()()0  or  more,  ,j  per  cent. 

For  work  costing  less  than  $10,000,  it  is  projier  to  charge  a  fee 
in  excess  of  5  per  cent. 

•1.  For  full  professit)iial  .services  and  management,  including 
preliminary  stiulies,  detailed  drawings  and  s])(Milications,  award- 
ing contracts,  active  and  continuous  su[)ervi>ions,  testing  and 
insjiection     work  costing  !?1(),00()  or  more,  10  ])er  cent. 

For  work  costing  less  than  S10,()00,  it  is  proju'r  to  charge  a 
fee  in  excess  of  10  per  cent. 

5.  For  investigations  and  rept)rts  involving  (juestioiis  in  dispute 
and  intended  for  use  in  connection  with  expert  testimony; 


EXaiXEI'JRS  AXD  THEIR  SERVICES 


Charges. —  A  minimum  fi-o  or  rotaiiior  of  $100  to  8500  or  such 
hirgcr  amounts  as  may  be  commensurate  with  the  financial 
importance  of  the  case  or  the  labor  involved,  with  per  diem  and 
expense  ciiarges  as  i)er  paragraph  (1  a). 

0.  Wiiere  a  per  diem  charge  is  made,  six  hours  of  actual  work 
shall  be  considered  one  day.  While  absent  from  the  home  city, 
however,  or  while  attending  court,  oiu-h  day  of  twenty-four  hours 
or  part  of  a  day  shall  be  considered  one  day,  irrespective  of  the 
actual  liours  of  time  devoted  to  the  case. 

7.  When  charges  are  based  on  a  percentage  of  the  cost,  the 
commissions  as  above  arc  to  be  computed  on  the  entire  cost  of  the 
comjileted  work  or  on  the  estimated  cost  pending  execution  or 
com{)letion.  Payments  shall  be  made  to  the  engineer  from  time 
to  t  imc  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  work  he  has  done. 

8.  Traveling  expenses  ;is  well  as  an;^  expenses  involved  in  the 
collection  of  the  data  necessaiy  for  the  proper  designing  or  plan- 
ning of  the  structure  or  pioject  such  as  borings,  soundings  or 
other  tests,  and  excepting  only  ordinary  measurements  and 
surveys,  are  to  be  paitl  by  the  client  in  addition  to  the  commissions 
herein  provitled. 

0.  When  alterations  or  additions  are  made  to  contracts, 
drawings  or  specifications,  or  when  .services  are  recjuired  in 
connection  with  legal  proceedings,  failure  of  contractors,  fran- 
cliises  or  rigiit  of  way,  a  charge  based  upon  the  time  and  trouble 
involved  shall  l)e  made  for  same  in  addition  to  the  commission 
herein  provitled  for. 

10.  Drawings  and  specifications  are  to  be  considered  the 
property  of  the  engineer,  but  the  client  is  entitled  to  receive  one 
complete  record  copy  of  same  upon  payment  of  actual  cost  of 
making  copies,  if  no  duplicate  .set  is  on  hand. 

PliUl'KSSIONAI,     CODK     .\ND   SciIKDlI.E   OF  ri:j:S  FOU  COXSULTING 

Enginp:ehs,  Adoi'tkd  Jink  2'>.  1911 

(The  American  In.stitute  of  Consulting  Lngineers,  Xew  York) 

Code  of  Professional  Ethics. — It  shall  be  considered  unprofes- 
sional and  inconsistent  with  honorable  and  dignified  bearing  for 
any  member  of  the  American  Institute  of  Consulting  Engineers: 

1.  To  act  for  his  clients  in  professional  matters  otherwise  than 
in  a  strictly  fiduciary  nianrcr  or  to  accept  any  other  remuneration 
thnn  his  direct  charges  for  services  rendered  his  clients  except 
as  provided  in  Clause  -1, 


8       KxarsEKii'ixa  of  shops  axd  factories 

2.  T<i  :uc(']it.  :iny  trade  coinini.ssioiis,  discovints,  allowancos, 
or  any  iiulircct.  i)n((it.  or  coiLsidcration  in  ('(iinu'ction  witli  any 
work  whicli  he  is  cnfiaj-cd  to  di'.sijrn  or  to  siipcrintcnd,  or  in 
coniu'i'tion  witli  any  professional  business  which  may  be  I'li- 
trusted  to  liini. 

3.  To  nejrU'et  inforniinf;  ids  clients  of  any  business  connections, 
interests  or  circumstances  winch  may  be  deemed  as  influencing 
his  judgment  or  the  (piality  of  his  services  to  his  clients. 

4.  To  receive  directly  or  imlirectly  any  royalty,  gratuity,  or 
commission  on  any  patented  or  protected  article  or  process  used 
in  work  upon  which  he  is  retained  by  his  clients,  unless  and  until 
receii)t  of  sudi  royalty,  gratuity  or  commission  has  been  author- 
ized in  writing  l)y  his  clients. 

").  To  offer  commissions  or  otherwise  improperly  .solicit 
professional  work  either  directly  or  by  an  agent. 

(■>.  To  attempt  to  'njure  falsely  or  maliciously,  directly  or 
indirectly,  the  i)rofet>iunal  reputation,  jjrospects  or  bu.siness  of 
a  fellow  engineer. 

7.  To  accept  employment  l)y  a  client  while  the  claim  for  com- 
pensation or  ilaniages,  or  both,  of  a  fellow  engineer  previously 
etnjjloyed  by  the  same  client  and  whose  emi)loynient  has  been 
terminated,  r(>mains  unsatisfied,  or  until  such  claim  has  been 
referred  to  ar])itration,  or  i.  sue  has  been  joined  at  law  or  unless 
the  engineer  pieviously  employed  has  neglecteil  to'  press  his 
claim  legally. 

8.  To  attempt  to  supplant  a  fellow  engineer  after  definite 
steps  have  been  taken  toward  his  employment. 

9.  To  compete  with  a  fellow  engineer  for  employment  on  the 
basis  of  professional  charges  by  reducing  his  usual  charges  and 
attempting  to  undeibitl  after  being  informed  of  the  charges 
named  by  his  competitor. 

10.  To  accej)t  any  engagement  to  review  the  work  of  a  fellow 
engineer  for  the  same  client,  except  with  the  knowledge  and 
consent  of  such  engineer,  or  unless  the  connection  of  such  engineer 
with  the  work  has  been  terminated. 

Schedule  of  Fees.— As  a  geneial  guide  in  determining  the  fees 
for  professiomil  services.  The  American  Institute  of  Consulting 
Engineers  recognizes  the  propriety  of  charging  a  i)er  diem  rate,  ;i 
fixed  sum,  or  a  i)ercentage  on  the  cost  of  work  as  follows: 

Per  Diem  I^ite. — 1.  Charges  for  coMsullations,  reports  and 
oi)inions  should  vary  according  to  the  c'         'ter,  magnitude  or 


E\aiNEER.^  AXD  THEIR  SERVICES  9 

importance  of  tlio  work  or  suhjoft  involved,  and  according  to 
the  experience  and  reputation  of  the  indivitlual  engineer  from 
8100  per  day  to  a  liisher  fijrure,  and  in  addition  where  expert 
testimony  is  reipiired,  or  where  otherwise  contlitions  warrant 
so  doing,  a  retainer  varying  from  8250  to  81000  and  upward. 
An  additional  charge  should  he  made  for  all  actual  expenses  such 
as  traveling  and  general  office  expense  and  field  assistants  and 
materials,  with  a  suitable  allowance  for  indeterminate  items. 
In  some  cases  six  hours  of  actual  work  should  be  considered  one 
day,  except  that  while  absent  from  the  home  city  each  day  ot 
twenty-four  hours  or  part  thereof,  shull  be  considered  one  day, 
irr<>spective  of  the  actual  hour^  of  time  devoted  to  the  case. 

I'lxed  Sum. — 2.  A  fixed  total  sum  for  above-mentioned  services 
may  be  agreed  on  in  lieu  of  jier  diem  charges.  A  fixed  sum  may 
also  be  charged  for  a  portion  or  all  of  the  items  of  preliminary 
survey,  .studies,  examinations,  reports,  detail  plans,  sjiecifications, 
and  supervision,  including  all  the  expenses  al)ove  recited  under 
per  diem  rate. 

Percentage  on  the  Cost  of  Work.— 3.  For  preliminary  surveys 
studies  and  reports  on  original  projects,  or  for  exanunation  and 
report  on  projects  prepared  by  another  engineer,  including  in 
both  cases  all  expenses  of  every  nature  except  those  that  may 
be  six'cifically  omitted  by  agreement  from  1\  per  cent,  to  3 
|>er  cent,  on  the  estimated  cost  of  the  work. 

4.  For  the  preliminary  stage  (Xo.  3)  and  in  addition  thereto 
(h'tail  plans  and  sijecifications  for  construction,  including  all 
expenses  of  every  nature  except  those  that  nuiy  be  specifically 
omitted  by  agreement— from  2h  per  cent,  to  5  per  cent,  on 
the  estimated  cost  of  the  work. 

5.  For  the  preliminary  and  middle  stages  (No.  3)  and  (Xo.  4) 
and  in  addition  thereto  general  supervision  during  construction, 
including  all  expenses  of  every  nature  except  those  that  may  be 
specifically  omitted  by  agreenu-nt— 5  per  cent.,  but  more  for 
work  costing  comparatively  small  amounts,  and  from  4  per  cent, 
to  5  per  c(>nt.  where  the  amount  involved  is  con.-.iderable. 

6  For  full  professional  services  (3) ,  (4)  and  (5)  and  manage- 
ment, including  the  awarding  of  contracts,  and  including  all 
expcn.ses  of  every  nature  .-..cept  tho.se  that  may  be  specifically 
omitted  by  agreement— 10  per  cent.,  but  more  for  work  costing 
comparatively  small  amounts,  and  o  per  ci  iit.  to  10  per  cent, 
where  the  amount  involved  is  considerable. 


10       EXaiNEERISG  OF  SHOPS  AXD  FACTORIES 

7.  When  ilcj^iicd,  the  pcrccntujiic  basis  may  be  adopted  for 
one  or  more  stafics,  .supijleiiiciited  l)y  a  daily  or  monthly  charge 
or  fixed  sum  for  the  remaining  stage  or  stages. 

General  Provisions.— 8.  The  period  of  time  should  be  design- 
ated during  which  the  agreed  i)erreiitages  and  daily  or  monthly 
charges  or  fixed  sum  shall  apply  and  beyond  whicli  period  an 
adilitional  charge  shall  be  made. 

0.  The  percentages  are  to  l)e  computed  on  the  entire  cost  of 
the  comphi.  work  or  upon  tiie  estimated  cost  pending  execution 
or  completion. 

10.  Payments  shall  be  made  to  tlic  engineer  from  time  to  time 
in  i)roporti()n  to  the  amount  of  work  done. 

11.  When  alterations  or  additions  are  made  to  contracts, 
drawings  or  specifications,  or  when  services  are  recpiired  in 
connection  with  negotiations,  legal  proceedings,  failure  of 
contractors,  fi-anchises  or  right  of  way,  a  charge  based  upon  the 
time  and  trouble  involved  shall  be  made  in  addition  to  the 
percentage  fee  agreed  ujxm. 

Contract  between  Engineer  and  Owner. — The  following  blank 
form  of  contract  is  taken  from  Kidder V'  Arcliitects'  Pocket  Book 
with  slight  modifications,  and  will  be  found  convenient. 

Cont  ract    between Engineer, 

and Owner. 

For  a  cotnjx'usation  of ,  tiie  engineer  proposes 

to  furnish  preliminary  sketches,  .-mtract,  working  drawings  and 
specifications,   detail  drawings  and  general  superintendence  of 

building  operations,  and  also  to  audit  all  accounts,  for  a 

tr  be  ercctetl  for ,  at 

Terms  of  payment  to  l)e  as  follows:  Two-tenths  when  the 
preliminary  sketches  are  completed;  three-tenths  when  the 
drawings    and    specifications    are    ready    for   letting    contracts; 

thei-eafter  at  the  rate  of per  cent,  ujjon  each  certificate 

due  to  the  contractor. 

If  work  upon  the  building  is  postponed  or  abandoned,  the 
compensation  for  the  work  done  l)y  the  engineer  is  to  bear  such 
relation  to  the  c(nnpensation  for  the  entire  work  as  determined 
by  the  publislu'd  schedule  of  fees  previously  given. 

In  all  transactions  between  the  owner  and  contractor,  the 
engineer  is  to  act  as  the  owner's  agent,  and  his  duties  and  liabil- 
ities in  tliis  connection  are  to  be  those  of  agent  only. 


EXaiXKERS  AM)  THEIR  SERVICES  11 

A  roprcsoiitiitivc  of  tlio  ciifiiiioer  will  make  visits  to  the  buiUling 
for  th('  i)urposi!  of  jieiioral  suijciintciuk'ncc,  of  such  fioqueiicy  and 
duration  as,  in  the  enfjinoer's  jud^nnent,  will  suffice  or  may  1)0 
necessary  to  ftdly  instruct  contractors,  pass  upon  the  merits  of 
material  and  workmanship,  and  maintain  an  effective  workinj; 
c)rf,'anization  of  the  several  contractors  engaged  upon  the 
structure. 

The  engineers  will  demand  of  the  contractors  proper  correction 
and  remedy  of  all  defects  discovered  in  their  work,  and  will 
assist  the  owner  in  enforcing  the  terms  of  the  contracts;  but  the 
engineer's  superintenilenc;'  shall  not  include  liai)ility  or  respon- 
sibility for  any  breach  of  contract  by  the  contractors. 

The  amount  of  the  engineer's  compensation  is  to  be  reckoned 
up()!i  the  total  cost  of  the  building,  including  all  stationary 
fixtui-('s. 

Drawings  and  specifications  are  instruments  of  .service,  and 
a.-'  such  •••■"  to  remain  the  pmperty  of  the  e'  ,;ineer. 


Ap|)n)ve(l  and  accei>t(^<l. 
Chicago,  June  1st,  ]!)lL>. 


]W 


Engineer. 
.  .  Owner. 


A  shorter  form  of  contract,  which  will  in  many  cases  be  (juite 
satisfactory  is  as  follows: 

Short  Form  of  Contract. — The  umlersigned  herel)y  agrees  to 

employ Engineer,    t')    furnish    .scale    drawings, 

details,  specifications,  and  to  do  the  superintendence  for  a  build- 
"'p  iit ^  iit  the  rate  of per  cent,  com- 
mission  for  drawings,  and    per  cent,    commi.s.sion   for 

superintendence,  the  commission  lo  bo  based  on  the  lowest  bid 
or  bids  received  on  the  work  as  an  entirety.  Furthermore, 
that  in   event   of   abandonment   after  preliminary  sketch   has 

been   submitted,  will   pay   said   Engineers   the  sum    of 

• Dollars  (S )  on  denrmd  for  said  sketches,  and 

if  work  is  abandoned  after  scale  drawings,  details  and  specifica- 
tions are  completed, v,\\]  pay  the  full per  cent. 

t)f  lowest  estimate  as  an  entirety. 
Signed 

Owner. 

The  above  contract  is  hereby  accepted  by 

Engineer. 


CHAPTER  11 


MANUFACTURING  DISTRICT 

Selection  of  Manufacturing  District. — The  sdcctiou  of  the 
most  mlvantaficous  district  is  in  some  irspccts  one  of  tlii'  most 
iitiportiiiit  fi'iiturcs  of  shop  ( conomics,  for  if  huildir.gs  arc 
wroiijily  placed,  they  must  continue  operation  imder  serious 
handicap,  or  else  meet  the  alternative  of  remo\al.  The  con- 
siderations which  are  of  chief  importance  in  selectinj?  a  district 
are  as  follows: 

1.  Place   -city  or  suhurh. 

2.  Cost  of  land  and  {ground  area  riMiuired. 

3.  Labor  supply  and  wajjes. 

4.  Nearness  to  raw  materials  ami  fuel. 

5.  Nearness  to  source  of  power. 
().  Shii)pin};  facilities. 

7.  Climate. 

8.  Market  for  manufact  ui'ed  products. 

It  is  rarely  possilile  to  find  a  ])lac!'  havinf!;  all  the  desired 
retiuirements,  and  the  best  tliat  can  b(>  done  after  weif^hinj;  tiie 
pros  and  cons  of  several  possii)le  districts  is  to  .select  the  one 
which  has  the  jjreatest  number  of  advantages. 

1.  When  contemi)latin<i:  a  site  in  any  region,  a  choice  must  first 
be  made  between  large  cities  and  smaller  ones,  or  a  suburban  or 
country  district.  The  advantage  of  a  large  city  is  that  the 
proposed  business  is  more  clo.sely  in  touch  with  other  business; 
th.it  adtlitional  help  can  be  tpiickly  found  when  needed;  that  a 
citj'  enterpiise  is  more  easily  financed  than  a  rural  one,  and  that 
shops  so  located  become  more  (juickly  known  and  arc  in  them- 
selves an  effective  advertisement. 

Some  of  the  disatlvantages  of  a  large  citj'  for  manufacturing 
are  the  high  cost  of  land  and  necessity  in  most  cases  of  using 
multi-story  buildings;  the  .smaller  chance  for  expansion;  the 
transient  habits  of  city  workmen:  the  difficulty  of  keeping  a 
permanent  force;  the  lack  of  personal  touch  between  employer 
and  employee;  greater  difficulty  from  trade  unions;  higher  cost 

12 


.V.l .\77F.irTf  HfSa  DISTRICT 


13 


of  living;  tho  imposition  in  many  cases  of  city  building  laws;  and 
altogether  the  difficulty  in  finding  ideal  conditions.  Taxes  in  a 
city  may  amount  to  $40  or  $.")()  per  year  for  each  employee, 
while  in  the  country  or  in  a  suburb  they  may  not  exceed  $5  per 
year. 

Small  cities  or  suburban  districts  arc  usually  preferred,  as 
workmen  are  not  only  more  conifortal)le  and  contented  in  such 
places  hut  they  are  al)le  to  d(»  more  and  better  work  in  good  light, 
pure  air  and  congenial  surroundings.  The  most  attractive 
districts  for  manufacturing  are  often  within  a  mile  of  some  small 
city  wiiich  has  a  population  of  not  less  t!uin  about  2."),()0(),  excel- 
lent examjjles  being  the  National  Cash  Register  Works  (Fig.  2)  at 
Dayton,  Ohio,  and  the  AUis-Chalmers  Plant  near  Milwaukee, 
Wis.     In  such  places  unoccupied   land   is  !il)undant  and  can 


Fui.-  2. — National  Cash  Kcgister  Works,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

usually  be  purcha.sed  at  prices  of  $200  to  $500  per  acre.  A  dis- 
trict should  be  chosen  near  one  or  more  lines  of  railroad,  and 
adjoining  some  good  water  supply  such  as  a  lake  or  river.  If  a 
trolley  lino  is  not  already  built  along  the  highway,  the  presence 
of  a  manufactory  will  very  soon  bring  the  desired  rail  connection 
to  the  adjoining  town,  so  that  workmen  may  ride  or  walk  to  and 
from  their  work  as  they  prefer.  There  is  usually  a  slight  dis- 
advantage from  being  outside  the  city  limits  in  that  insurance 
rates  are  about  25  cents  per  $100  more  than  within  reach  of  city 
hydrants.  When  placed  parallel  with  and  far  enough  -"  "V 
from  a  main  line  of  railroad,  buildings  with  signs  above  tho... 
large  enough  to  be  easily  seen  and  read  by  people  in  passing 
trains,  are  in  themselves  very  effective  advertising.  When  thus 
located  on  main  lines  of  railway  between  important  towns  or 


14     i:.\(;im:i:i{1\(!  of  siiors  .\\d  FAcroh'ins 


lari^c  cities,  this  kind  of  display  i<  vimt  impressive,  esiiecially 
wiieii  liiiiidiii;;s  are  new  and  attractive. 

A  rural  nr  country  district,  remote  from  towns  or  cities,  is 
desiralile  only  in  rare  instances  where  other  advantages  arc  preat 
imd  evident,  such  as  tiie  presence  of  fuel  beds,  raw  in.'iicrial  or 
power.  To  avoid  heavy  freight  char^^'s,  clay  industries  and 
brick  yards  nnist  \isually  l>e  placc^d  where  the  clay  is  found,  or 
to  .s-:ive  transmission  expense,  tlie  |)resence  of  natural  water 
power  ni..y  someliines  he  reason  enoufih  for  liuildinj;  th(>  plant 
away  from  a  town  but   near  the  water  power.      When  too  far 

from  town,  the  i ipany  nuist  invest  extra  moiu'y  in  houses  for 

their  workmen,  which  has  been  done  in  many  cases,  such  as  at 
the  plants  of  the  Maryland  Steel  ("o'ni)any,  and  some  of  the 
American  Hridjre  Company's  plants.  The.se  lioii.ses  should  bo 
(•oinfortal)le  and  commodious,  and  in  keejjin};  with  other  accom- 
modations for  employees  in  modern  industries,  t'on.iienial 
Kurroundinjis  for  workmen  are  not  a  philanthropic  measure  on 
the  part  of  t'luployers,  l)ut  rather  an  assistance  in  securing;  and 
retaining  a  proficient  cla.ss  of  operatives. 

After  choosiiif!;  between  lar^e  ami  snudl  cities,  or  one  of  their 
suburbs,  the  other  matters  outlined  at  the  beginning  of  this 
chapter  may  l)e  taken  uj)  in  order. 

2.  The  three  m  st  ;mi)ortant  considerations  in  selecting  a 
inamifacturinir  district,  are  the  cost  of  land  and  prescMice  of  labor 
and  raw  nuiterials,  the  first  of  these  fre(|Uently  being  the  most 
important.  If  too  nuuh  money  is  invested  in  the  land,  the  rent, 
taxes  and  interest  on  the  investment  may  be  such  a  heavy  chargo 
against  the  l)usiness  as  to  .seriously  reduce  the  possible  dividends. 
In  large  cities,  land  is  often  more  valuable  than  the  buildings  on 
it,  and  the  money  which  might  be  received  by  selling  the  city 
land  would  i)ay  for  iiotli  land  and  new  Ijuildings  in  a  less  exp(>n- 
sive  district.  Certain  lines  of  industry  re(|uire  so  much  ground 
for  their  one-story  shops,  and  for  yards  and  tracks,  that  city 
land  may  not  only  be  too  expensive,  but  a  block  of  the  reipiired 
size  may  not,  l)e  obtainable.  Car  shops,  structural  works,  and 
nearly  all  kinds  of  metal  working  shops  come  under  this  hea<ling. 

In  the  business  (!!.strict  of  New  York  City,  lots  .sell  for  SlOO  to 
StiOO  per  s(iuare  foot,  and  in  the  central  part  of  Chicago  and 
Boston,  from  !«9()  to  J?1()0  per  scpiare  foot.  In  Chicago,  land 
constitutes  53  per  cent,  of  the  wh.  >  value,  and  improvements 
only  45  per  cent.,  while  iu  Boston  the  land  values  are  nearly  50 


MA  S  U  FACT  I  HI  Xa  I)  IS  TlilC  T 


15 


por  cent.,  rnnro  than  irnprovonionts  The  land  in  Cicvoland,  as 
a  wlioli',  is  valiu'<l  at  4~  per  cfiit.  more  tiiaii  all  the  liuihiiiigs, 
ami  similar  proportions  apply  flsowhcre. 

3,  Tiic  need  of  al)iin<lant  lahor  is  so  important  that  the 
tendency  is  to  place  new  works  in  the  vicinity  of  others  making 
tho  Slime  kind,  or  similar  j^oods.  Skilled  lahor  for  iron  works  is 
! ')undant  in  sncii  cities  as  ("l(>veland  and  I'ittshur^';  fur  cotton 
niiiis,  in  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island;  for  packing  houses, 
in  such  places  as  Chicap)  and  Kansas  City;  and  for  automohile 
factories,  at  Detroit  and  other  cities  in  .Miclii;;an.  Theprevailinj^ 
rate  of  wajjes  also  varies  according;  to  locution,  heinj;  lower  in  tho 
Southern  Siates  and  most  parts  of  Canada  than  in  the  Eastern 
and  Middle  States,  or  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  As  th(>  cost  of  laiior 
is  continuous  and  is  sometimes  half  the  operatiii};  expense,  a 
small  difference  in  the  rales  pai<l  is  likely  to  iu-  (piite  larjie  in  the 
af;t;refrate.  A  less  cost,  of  labor  and  huildiii;;  material  may  also 
cause  an  important  reduction  in  the  cost  i>f  huildinj;  the  i)lant. 

4.  When  a  larj;e  amount  of  raw  material  and  fuel  is  used,  it  is 
desirable  to  select  a  district  near  to  one  or  both  of  them,  where 
the  total  cost  of  all  triins])ortiition  charges  will  l)e  a  minimum. 
Nearness  to  materials  is,  therefore,  of  most  imi)ortance  in  plants 
with  heavy  products,  and  the  need  of  .such  a  location  decreases 
with  the  volume  of  freight.  For  li<;ht  manufacture,  where  tha 
cost  of  proilucts  depends  chiefly  on  the  labor  expended  on  them, 
rather  than  upon  their  volume  or  wei<;ht,  nearness  to  supplies  is 
of  little  importance. 

T).  Nearness  to  the  source  of  power  is  a  consideration  when 
direct  water  j)ower  and  turbines  are  used.  This  kind  of  power, 
however,  is  not  .so  much  favored  as  formerly,  for  it  can  better  bo 
used  now  for  ;reneratin<;  electiical  currents,  whicli  are  more 
easily  transmitted.  Thirty  years  au;o,  water  power  sites  were 
at  a  premium,  and  tlie  j^rowth  and  business  of  many  cities  such 
as  Lawrence  and  Lowell,  Mass.  were  largely  due  to  the  presence 
of  such  power. 

(>.  It  is  an  advantage  to  have  at  least  two  competing  lines  of 
railway  serving  the  plant  if  the  amount  of  shipping  is  large,  and 
water  transportage  may  also  be  convenient,  as,  in  most  cases, 
freight  l)y  water  is  cheaper  than  by  rail.  Large  cities  with 
many  lines  of  railroad,  have  the  gi<>at.est  shipping  facilities,  espe- 
cially those  nn  the  Creat  Lakes  and  on  the  sea  coast.  For 
light  manufactures,  where  labor  is  the  cuicf  item  of  cost,  and 


in     KxaiShKHiSd  OF  siiors  asd  factories 


till'  iinioiintrt  of  .xliippinp  is  ;-iinnIl,  it  iniiy  1m'  piTiiiissihli'  in  noma 
instances  ti>  plan- 1  In-  ;>lant  iiwuy  ficni  nmin  lines  of  ruilwiiy  where 
other  atlvantajjes,  .such  as  cheap  hind,  may  l>e  found. 

7.  Cliinaf e  is soniet iines  an  important.  ;oiisiiU'ration  in  seh'cting 
a  nianufai  f  uiiiin  district,  as  places  which  are  known  to  be  subject 
to  cyclones,  earth(iuakes,  aiul  violent  storms  are  in  this  respect 
undesirable.  l',\treme  temperatures  of  heat  and  cold,  the 
<|epth  to  which  fro.st  penetrates,  the  amount  of  snow  and  rain, 
all  affect  operation  to  .some  extent.  It  is  well  known  that  a  cold 
and  bracinj;  climate  is  invifjoratin>;,  and  for  this  reason,  northern 
districts  are  sometimes  preferred;  northern  races  such  as  tho 
Ilifjhlanders,  Scandimivians  and  Canadians  are  usually  more 
energetic  and  progressive  than  the  re.sidents  of  warm  countries, 
Huch  as  S|)ain  and  Italy. 

,H.  The  market  for  products  will  also  affect  the  selection  of  ii 
district.  If  fidods  are  chieliy  for  export  to  Kurojje  and  other 
eastern  and  southern  countries,  some  places  on  the  Atlantic 
sealioard  would  prol)alily  be  the  best;  whereas,  if  products  are 
mostly  for  export  to  Japan  and  China,  the  I'a<'i!ic  coast  would  be 
preferred.  Manufacturers  of  agricultural  implements  fin<l  the 
Central  States  adjoininj;  the  jirain  belt  to  be  the  most  convenient, 
and  many  such  industries  may  be  found  in  such  cities  as  Chicayo, 
Kansas  City,  Omaha,  and  in  .some  parts  of  Western  Canada, 
Selection  of  Building  Lot. — After  deciding  upon  the  district  or 
reuiim  \v!.i'  li  is  l>e.-.i  --uited  ft)r  the  ;)ro|)osed  industry,  sonu-  one 
builtlin^  lot  must  be  .selected  from  .several  po.ssible  ones.  In 
choosinji:  a  district,  it  will  be  impossible  to  find  a  block  with  all 
the  desired  advantajies.  Features  to  be  considered  are:  (1) 
cost,  (Ji  .iirade,  (:})  water  supply,  (4)  drainage,  (■"))  foundations, 
and  {('»)  approaches.  There  nuist  also  be  facilities  for  heatiii'i, 
ventilatinii  and  lijihtinji:  the  buildiufr,  and  for  development  or 
applica.tiou  of  power,  as  well  as  for  the  handlinp;  of  materials. 
The  .seieition  ()!  a  site  ma v  also  be  affected  to  some  extent  by 
the  need  of  tire  protection  and  the  dcfiree  of  permanence  desired. 
The  first  cost  is  really  of  le.ss  importance  than  exi)enses,  such 
as  wages  and  freight,  that  arc  continuous.  A  lot  which  will  save 
the  owner  «1()()0  per  year  by  its  better  facilities  for  handling, 
shipi)ing  or  storing  goods,  is  worth,  at  .">  i)er  cent,  ititerest,  $-0,000 
more  to  him  than  another  lot  which  cannot  make  such  saving. 
Therefore,  if  the  owner  can  buy  the  l)etter  lot  at  anything  less 
than  $20,000  more  than  the  other,  he  is  exercising  economy. 


M.\.\ll'A(Tri{I.\a  DISTRICT 


17 


Tlio  pniilc  of  lot  filiould  lit'  level  or  iieiiily  so,  the  prefereiieo 
UHiially  heiiij;  for  a  slope  of  uliout  one-half  of  1  per  cent,  in  flio 
direetioii  that  jjoods  pass  in  the  course  of  mnnufuotnro.  Somo 
low  jiniind  is  not  ohjet  tionahle,  as  it  can,  perhaps,  he  used  for 
diini|)''nj;  ashes  or  other  refuse.  Hillsides  arc  rarely  dosirahlo, 
unless  for  f;'-uvitj  transportation,  stieh  us  at  mine  shafts  or  stone 
(piarries  whore  iiio  descending;  loaded  car  huuls  the  empty  one  up 
the  ^rade. 

Asupply  of  fresh  water  is  neodrd  for  boiler  food,  sanitation,  etc., 
and  soft  wafer  is  prefi-rahlo  to  that  containinj,'  lime  or  salt.  In 
cities  it  can  he  taken  from  tlu  street  mains  at  a  cost  of  %'2  to  %\ 
per  year  for  each  omployoo,  wh'ch  in  a  plant  with  .KK)  people  mi<;ht 
amount  to  SKXM)  or  more  per  J'oar.  In  this  item  alone,  a  lot 
with  a  natural  supply  would,  at  5  per  cent.,  be  worth  $23,000  to 
$40.()()()  more  to  tlu?  owner  than  another  one  without  it. 

The  lot  should  be  hi;i;h  enouj;h  above  some  adjoining  area  or 
channel  that  it  will  1)0  well  drained,  a  bod  of  gravel  and  sand 
boinj;  the  best  for  this  purpose.  This  sub-strata  is  also  a  good 
one  for  foundations,  especially  in  plants  whore  heavy  loads  must 
bo  sustained,  (iuicksand  nuist  always  be  avoided,  as  it  is  too 
uncertain  for  foundations  of  any  kind,  except  in  cases  of  extreme 
necessity. 

The  roads  or  api)roachos  to  the  plant  should  be  put  in  Rood 
condition.  Hrick  is  an  excellent  pavin<;  for  driveways  and  walks, 
as  it  is  easily  drained,  and  horses  find  a  nu)re  secure  foothold  than 
on  a  smooth  pavenu-nt.  Cobble  stones,  while  suitable  for  draft 
horses,  are  too  uncomfortable  for  pedestrians. 

After  carefully  coiisiderinf?  the  advantages  of  several  sites, 
and  selectinjr  the  one  most  siiital)le  for  the  purpose,  a  survey 
should  bo  made  by  a  local  surveyor,  who  has  access  to  other 
jjropcrty  mai)s,  lines  and  >rrados,  and  a  drawinj;  should  be  plotted, 
showing  adjoining  property  linos,  buildings,  roads,  water  courses, 
gas  and  water  pipes,  with  elevations  and  grade,  and  all  other 
data  which  will  be  of  interest  to  the  engineer  and  owner. 

The  choice  of  lot  may  sometimes  bo  postponed  until  after  the 
arrangement  of  departments  an<l  buildings,  and  the  total  re- 
quired property  areas  arc  detennine<l.  If  se\-eral  lots  of  ground 
are  under  consideration,  a  good  method  of  prv)ceduro  is  to  reject 
Buccossivoly  the  least  desirable  ones,  when  finally  the  best  one 
will  remain. 


CIIAPTKH  HI 


ECONOMICS  OF  FACTORY  CONSTRUCTION 


Before  bejiinniiifi  the  detail  drawings,  tlie  followin 


<r  .  .at  ■ci's  of 
th,. 


sliup  economics  must  be  eaiefully  eonsideiea,  and  alu 
order  as  jxiven: 

1.  Pro!)osed  methods  of  manufacture. 

2.  I'rojjosed  methods  of  manajicment. 

;3.  Collection  of  data  relative  to  other  similar  ])laiits. 
4.  Schedule  of  machines  which  must  lie  lioused. 
.").  Arranuement  of  machines. 
().  Area  and  elevation  of  floors  for  each  department. 

7.  Uecetvinji  and  shippiuL:  facilities. 

8.  l*rovision  for  extension. 

9.  Arran.iicment  of  dejiartnients. 

10.  Preparatory  design  of  luiildiniis. 

11.  Approximate  cost  e>tiiiiates. 

Hach  of  these  sul.,iects  will  be  coiisidered  in  the  following 
pa<:t.,  and  t  heir  relative  importance  will  depend  somewhat  on  the 
nature  of  the  jroods  produced. 

1.  Proposed  Methods  of  Manufacture.— One  of  tiie  first  duties 

of  an  industrial  enjiineer  when  undertaking   the  planning  of  a 

maniifacturinji  plant,  is  to  inform  himself  thorou-hly  in  reference 

to  the  metiiods  of  manufacture  and  management  to  be  used  m 

the  shops  after  their  completion.     The  owner.s  will  have  hrst 

estimated  the  probable  amount  of  poods  that  can  l)e  sold  or  put 

on  tiie  market  per  year,  and  from  this  estimate,  reduced  to  a 

money  value,  an  approximation  can  i)e  made  of  the  prospective 

profits.     ConsiderinfT  these  jjiofits  as  interest  on  an  investnienl, 

tlie  expcMidituie  that  is  i)ermissible  can  readily  be  determined. 

For  instance,  consider  that  fi..o<ls  to  the  value  of  S5()0,()00  could 

be  marketed  aimually  with  a  i)rofit  of  20  per  cent,  or  8100,000. 

This  amount  of  profit  is  10  por  cent,  interest  or  dividend  on  an 

investmer.t   of  ?1, 000.000.     With  this   limiting   value  and  the 

estimate  of  jrooU.^  whi.'h  can  be  marketed  annually,  with  due 

all.)wance  for  prowth  or  exjiansion,  an  approximation  can  be 

made  of  tlie  required  capacity  of  the  new  plant. 

IS 


KCOXOMICS  OF  FACTORY  COSSTRrcTIOS 


19 


All  these  in;if(ers  are  most  familiar  to  tiie  faetorv 


owner, 


lie  must  inform  tlieeii"ineerof  lii.- 


re<|uireiiieiils.      If  llie  l)uil 


UK 

diii".- 


1 


;-\teiisioiis  to  those  already  in  use,  he  imist  e\|)lain  for  what 


departments  the  new  ones  are  intended  and  tl 


ments  of  those  departments  as  well  as  tl 


le  special  re(|Uire- 
l.k 


leir  pi'oliahle  oiiti)iit. 
Ml   of  these   matters    may  be  studied  j)ersonally  hy  thcowner 


wli 


en  the  j)lant  is  small.  Init  in  larger  worl 


ks  one  or  more  persons 


are  freipiently  employed,  each  of  whom  makes  it  his  special  duty 
to  investijiate  matters  ix-rtaininj;  to  shop  eiiuipment.  arranj>e- 
meiit,  i)roducti(,n  methods  and  mana,iienient,  and  to  this  indi- 


vidual, whet 


ler  executive  or  owner,  the  ( iurii 


data    in    reference    to    the    ))roposed    methoils    of 


leer  must  look  for 
manufacture. 


many  plants,  one  of  the  most  im])ortant 


Such  study  is  indeed,  in 

duties  in  corine<'tion  with  the  whole  enterjjrise,  for  it   involv( 

much  research,   and  investigation  of  ways  and   means  used  hv 

other  slio])s  nianufact  urini;  tiie  sai 

to  secure  such   inf 


ne  or  similar  ■loods.     In  order 


ormatioii  some  man; 


■!  even  resort  to  tho 
questionable  method  of  advertisin.ii  important  jiositions  vacant, 
for  the  i)urpose  of  securiiiu  api)!ications  from  men  employed  in 


similar  sho])s,  not  that  assistance  is  i 


f 

jiosition    is    in    view.     The    policy  of    t 


led.  but  that  sinnrestions 


ro:'i  these  men  are  more  easily  obtained  when  a  prospective 


manufacturing  methods  is  t( 

sources,  whether  from  the  humblest  emphivee  of  1 


le    ofiicer    m  cliarf!,c  of 
cure;  new  ideas  from  any  or  all 


•fn 


use 


til 


im  iini)ortant  officials  of  competing 


lis  own  factory 


com 


■su,u"estion  svst(>m. 


)tle 


furnish  valuable  ideas  which  will  .aid 
the  cost,  and  for  this  purpose  letter  1 


panies.  Some  shops 
wil  premiums  to  any  who 
in  proiluctioii,  or  diminish 
)o\es  are  i)laccd  about  tho 


works,  in  which  employees  may  drop  written  memoranda  which 


ma 


y  bo  valuable  to  the  i 


nana;ioment.  \\'lienever  anv  of  the.se 
suf-frcstions  are  put  into  u.se,  the  person  contributing  it  is  duly 
repaid.  Profits  in  manufacturin-;  plants  usually  depend  as  much 
upon  the  low  cost  of  product" 


ion,  as  they  do  in  retail  establish- 


in 


eiits  on  careful  buyinjr,  because  in  both  lines  of  1 


prices  are  fixed  by  those  of  comi)etitors.     II 
tion  or  improved  method  which  will  reduce  tl 
is  a  proportiomite  j;ain. 
11 


)usmess,  sellinj5 


ence,  every  sujifies- 
le  production  cost 


le  matters  referred  to  above  are  familiar  to  plant  owners 
and  manaser.s,  such  knowledge  being  part  of  their  stock  in  trade, 
and  any  data  which  the  engineer  needs  sluniKl  be  supplied  to  him! 
He  ohouM  make  note  of  the  owners'  ideas  and  reciuircments,  and 


•20     i:\(;i.\i-:i':ifisa  of  shops  and  FAcroHiES 

personally   inspect  the  old  shoi>s   ami  sinnhir  ones,   to  bettor 
ac-iuaint' himself  with  the  needs  of .  the  ne      plant.     Matters 
pertaining  exclusively  to  building  construction  and  methods  of 
lifihting,  heating,  ventilating,  etc.,  are  usually  better  understood 
by  the  engineer  or  -irchitect  than  by  any  one  else,  though  even 
in  these  matters,  tiio  owners  will  usually  have  their  p- Terences. 
For  the  manufacture  of  small  goo  Is  where  labor  rathci  .i.an  ma- 
terials is  the  largest  element,  buildings  of  rectangular  plan  in 
several  stories  are  iisually  preferable,  with  the  advantage  that  a 
change  is  more  easily  made  in  the  arrangement  of  machinery  or 
departments,  l>ut  shops  for  the  manufacture  of  larger  goods, 
such  as  hoavv  machinery,  must  usually  be  of  some  special  form. 
2.  Methods  of  Management— During  the  last  few  years,  great 
progress  has  been  made  in  methods  of  shop  management,  and 
sevcrid  valuable  books  have  been  written  on  the  subject.^    For 
this  reason,  and  with  the  prospect  of  further  improvements  in  this 
direction,  nuich  foresight  is  needed  when  making  preparatory 
plans.     As  far  as  possil)le,  it  is  better  to  arrange  the  plant  so  the 
administration   methods   can  be   changed   if   necessary.     Shop 
offices,  tool  rooms  and  other  enclosures  should  therefore  be  made 
with  partitions  that  arc  removable,  and  l;enches,  storage  cases 
an.l  other  furnishing  should  be  placed  and  installed  so  they  can  be 
easily  changed.     The  use  and  position  of  time  clocks  may  de- 
term'ine  thelocation  of  doorways  for  employees    ad  passageways 
through  the  shops.     Any  matters  of  this  kind  relating  to  the 
subse(iuent  management,  may  affect  the  design,  and  on  these 
subjects  the  engineer  should  be  informed. 

a.  Particulars  of  Similar  Plants.— Before  going  further  with 
plans,  the  engineer  should  collect  and  compile  data  relating  to 
other' plants  of  the  same  kind,  or  similar  ones.  This  is  most 
easily  ()l)tained  from  drawings  and  reports  in  trade  journals,  as 
personal  examination  of  buildings  is  usually  bewildering  from 
their  complexity  of  iletail.  A  personal  visit  may.  however,  bo 
beneficial  after  drawings  have  been  examined,  or  when  these  are 
not  obtainable,  and  on  such  excursions,  a  small  camera  is  valuable. 
Very  little  data  of  the  kind  is  now  available  without  original 
research,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  engineering  companies  who 
have  collected  and  preserved  such  information,  are  able  to  pre- 
pare plans  more  quickly  than  others  who  are  without  it.  If 
the  new  buildings  are  additions  to  old  ones,  the  latter  should  be 
carefully  studied.     Floor  space,  capacity,  number  of  employees. 


ECONOMICS  OF  FACTORY  COWSTRVCTIOX       21 


daily  or  monthly  production,  arrangoineiit  of  contcMits,  etc., 
should  ho  examined  and  noted,  and  the  l•e^^ults  analyzed,  to 
such  ready  reference  units  as  floor  s])ace  and  cubic  contents  of 
•shop  per  unit  of  product,  or  per  employee.  The  cost  of  huildiufis, 
unu)unt  of  power,  etc.,  should  all  he  noted,  and  these  data  and 
analyses  should  be  jireserved  for  future  reference. 

New  huildinf^s  .should  not  ncce.ssarily  Ije  just  like  other  ones 
manufacturinji  similar  i)roducts,  and  features  should  not  ho 
copied  witiiout  knowinj?  fully  the  reason  for  their  presence,  for  in 
the  other  huildinj;  there  may  liave  heen  some  special  need  for 
tlio.se  features,  wiiich  does  not  exist  in  the  n(>w  one.  Caution 
must,  therefore,  he  used  in  these  matters.  Data  of  the  kmd 
gleaned  from  journals  or  drawiiifrs,  can  well  he  supplemented 
by  i)ractical  suggestions  from  foremen  or  employees,  who  are 
often  more  familiar  than  engineers  with  practical  shop  needs. 
If  an  industrial  engineer  is  not  in  posse.ssion  of  information  of  this 
kind,  several  months  might  profitably  be  spent  in  investigation 
and  research,  and  owners  are  frofjuently  willing  to  wait,  in  order 
to  have  a  more  efficient  plant.  In  otho-  cases,  wlion  new  pro- 
jects are  undertaken,  owners  prefer  to  see  results  at  once,  even  at 
a  somewhat  greater  initial  cost,  in  order  to  have  their  goods  on 
the  market  and  earning  dividends.  Industrial  engineers  aie 
therefore  wise  to  provide  themselves  beforehand  with  as  much 
data  as  possible,  j)ertaining  to  other  plants.  A\'hen  facts  must 
be  collected  for  a  particular  inilustry,  several  men  may  he 
employed  in  research,  each  one  taking  a  special  part,  and  the 
whole  may  afterward  be  assembled  and  arranged  by  one  person. 
Uniform  methods  and  units  must  be  used,  in  or  "or  that  the  analy- 
sis may  be  accurate.  For  exami)le,  building  areas  should  be 
computed  either  from  their  inside  dimensions  in  all  cases,  or 
from  their  outside.  While  studying  other  plants,  especial  note 
should  be  made  of  their  efficiencj-,  operating  and  maintenance 
expense,  cost,  type  of  construction,  and  provision  for  extension, 
so  that  all  features  of  special  value  nuiy  be  incorporated  in  the 
new  plans. 

4.  Schedule  of  Machinery. — After  collecting  data  relating  to 
the  proposed  methods  of  manufacture  and  management,  and  to 
other  similar  industries,  initial  work  on  the  new  jjlant  may  begin. 
It  is  better  to  start  with  a  small  plan  showing  only  the  essentials 
without  detail,  and  to  develop  it  as  investigat 
By  this  method  the  final  result  should  be  logical. 


progresses. 


22        7!,'.\V,7.\7;/v7,7.V0'  OF  SIIOl'S  aSD  FACTOh'TFS 


Tlic  sr.i.'dulc  cif  llKMhinrs  tn  \>0  U>vd  ill  Uir  iicw  siiops  will 
dciKMid  upon  tlie  piopuscd  r  'itv  or  (.ulput,  ami  the  list  should 
cither  l>e  made  l>y  tiio  ov  ni.iiia.ucr,  or  should  l>o  cxaiiuncd 

and   ajiprovi'd    \>y  him.  .    luachinos  !nay  all  be  now,  or,   if 

the  huildiniis  arc  t'xti'nsioiis  of  former  ones,  some  old  ones  may 
be  utilized.  Those  of  stai\tlard  make  are  iis\ially  the  cheapest 
and  best,  b(>eause  improvements  have  been  made  on  them  as 
found  desirable  from  experience.  If  the  repilations  of  trade 
unions  .■-hould  in  any  case,  pievent  th.e  \ise  of  certain  machines, 
otliers  of  e.iiial  utility  can  i)erhaps  l)e  substituted.  .Machines 
should  as  far  as  pos>ible,  be  used  instead  of  nninual  labor,  that 
operatin.ii  exi)ense  may  be  kei)t  at  a  niinimum.  The  savinj;  of 
SlUO  i)er  year  in  wa-es  will  jienerally  warrant  an  investment  of 
about  821)00  in  machinery. 

It  is  .seldom  economical  to  manufacture  lij;ht  and  heavy  -roods 
in  the  same  shops,  or  articles  which  differ  jrreatly  fnnn  each  other, 
because  some  of  the  machines  may  then  be  idle  much  of  the 
time.  A  separate  schedule  of  machines  should  be  made  for 
each  department. 

.").  Arrangement  of  Machines.  Tn  arran-Infr  the  machinery  in 
eacii  dei)artment  of  a  shop,  elliciency  should  be  the  chief  consider- 
ation. T.ie  course  of  travel  taken  l)y  .^(.ods  in  i)rocess  of  manu- 
facture should  first  lie  studied  and  est  ablislied— a  duty  which 
shoul.l  l>e  iK'rform(Ml  or  directed  by  the  owner  or  manager,  and 
this  course  siiould  always  1)C  cither  forward  or  zi,u,-zag  ba<'k  and 
forth  over  tiie  shop  floor,  liul  never  backward.  When  the 
.^e,|uence  nf  operations  has  been  established,  the  machines  may 
then  lie  jilaced  accordin.uly.  passajreways  beinji  left  where 
needed.  The  arrantiement  sh.iuld  be  such  as  to  require  the 
least  total  amount  of  travel  and  handlinjr,  and  provision  .slumld 
be  made  for  additional  ones  when  needed  (Fi-.  :?).  The  buildins 
laws  of  some  cities  specify  the  minimum  space  which  will  be 
allowed,  as,  for  instance,  in  Cleveland  where  each  day  worker 
nnist  have  not  less  than  2.-)  s(|.  ft.  of  floor  space,  and  :iOO  cu.  ft. 
of  air,  and  each  ni^ht  worker  40  s.i.  ft.  of  floor  and  4S0  cu.  ft. 

of  air. 

\\  h(>n  layouts  ha\c  lieen  made  showini;  the  contents  of  each 
department  arrai.-ed  to  the  best  advanta>j.e,  the  reciuired  areas 
of  thes(-  deiiartments  should  be  tabulated.  oi)en  or  uncovered 
parts  bein^  kept  sejiarate  from  tliose  wliich  nuist  be  enclosed  or 
housed. 


ECOXOMICS  OF  FACTORY  COSSTIiUCriON       23 


The  most  convenient  inetliod  of  aniinf;in<:  and  locatinj;  tlie 
macliines  is  to  first  make  small  scale  drawings  of  each  ono 
showing    the  outside  di- 


Jr'^' 


Oi 


«4'|; 


mensions  of  the  base  or 

foundation,  ■with  the  part 

above  the  floor  in  dotted 

lines.       These     drawings 

may   either   lie   made   to 

the  same  scale  as  the  floor 

plans,  or   since   drawings     ^jii  ^  r. 

(if    such    small   scale   are      n,.     ~*   I] 

"04  il    -■■^ 
M^\  [111 

Hi  m  . 


i- 


I 


^ 


% 


Li 
o 

0-' 


n 


33       3    0' 

I  4 


a 
a 

a 
0 


2  5 


ncitiicr  cisily  made  nor 
very  accurate,  they  can 
he  drawn  three  or  fotir 
times  larger  than  the  de- 
sired size,  ami  zinc  etch- 
ings of  the  proper  reduc- 
tion made  from  the  draw- 
ings. From  these  zinc 
plates  as  many  jirints 
may  l)c  made  as  desired, 
only  ono  plate  being 
needed  for  each  kind  of 
machine,  even  though 
several  duplicate  ones 
may  be  used.  A\'hen 
zinc  etchings  are  used,  the 
drawings  may  be  so  as- 
sembled that  the  blocks 
or  plates  will  be  of  some 
convenient  size  such  as 
5^  by  S  in.,  or  4  by  G 
in.,  the  cost  of  ])lates 
being  aliout  five  cents  ])er 
.s(]uare  inch.  Small  scale 
drawings,  or  prints  from 
the  zinc  plates  may  then 
be  cut  up  and  arranged 
over  the  floor  plan  in  the 
de>iicd  order,  and  temporarily  attached  thereto  with  pins. 
Several  alternate  arrangements  may  thus  be  made,  each  with  a 


h,tr  M-y- 


^ff 


8 


% 


I 


CDt 


I        ?= 


24       ENGINEER!. \G  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 

new  floor  plan  and  dummios,  and  when  these  alternate  stiulies 
are  fiiii.shcd  they  may  be  compared  and  tlie  best  features  of  each 
selected  for  the  ultimate  arrangement. 

6.  Area  and  Elevation  of  Floor  in  each  Department. — When  the 
machines  have  been  arranjted  to  produce  with  the  {greatest 
efficiency,  the  total  re(iuired  area  can  then  be  determined.  If 
goods  are  handled  between  the  machines,  there  must  be  space 
not  only  for  storajje  l)Ut  for  workmen.  The  space  should  .  )t 
l)e  too  larfie,  for  compact  arranjiement  saves  steps  and  time. 
This  principle  is  well  uiulerstood  in  house  architecture,  where 
small  kitchens  conveniently  ai-ran>;ed  are  usually  preferred  to 
larjser  ones.  The  amount  of  space  needed  around  machines 
depends  to  some  extent  ui)on  the  methods  of  lifting  {joods, 
whether  by  hand  or  with  hoists.  Space  must  sometimes  be 
left  for  storafje  and  the  amount  will  depend  somewhat  on  condi- 
tions. Little  is  needed  when  goods  in  the  course  of  manufacture 
pass  continuously  from  one  machine  to  another.     In  other  cases 


I'm.  4.— lord  Motor  Works,  Uutroit,  Mich. 


more  storage  space  may  be  needed,  the  amount  depending  on  the 
size  of  goods  and  method  of  l)iling  tliem.  Some  space  may  be 
saved  by  storing  small  parts  on  racks  or  shelves. 

The  tabulated  floor  areas  referred  to  above,  sliould  show  the 
total  areas  recpiired  in  each  department,  with  subdivisions  giving 
the  amount  of  si)ace  in  each  case,  that  must  bo  on  the  solid 
ground.  Investigation  of  this  table  will  show  the  numljer  of 
stories  than  can  be  used,  and  the  probable  outline  of  the  build- 
ings. Experience  shows,  that  for  cotton  mills,  four  stories  are 
usually  the  most  convenient.  Some  designers  are  so  enthusiastic 
over  smgle  story  shops,  as  to  specify  them  in  nearly  all  cases, 


ECONOMICS  OF  FACTORY  CONSTRUCTIOX 


])iit  like  many  other  coinjjarativoly  now  ideas,  the  one  Htory 
.sliop  has  fre<|uently  been  used  williout  suHicient  reason. 

The  width  of  stories  is  usually  fixed  hy  the  need  of  lightinj^ 
from  the  sides.  Those  of  modern  desijjn  in  -which  a  largo  pro- 
portion of  the  exterior  walls  is  of  glass,  are  well  lighted  from  the 
side  windows  in  widths  up  to  75  ft.  or  more.  The  Ford  Motor 
Company  building  (Fig.  4)  at  Detroit,  four  stories  high,  80.")  ft. 
long  and  7.">  ft.  wide,  is  as  light  inside  as  any  old  style  building  of 
only  half  its  width. 

.Vdjoining  buildings,  even  though  of  different  widths,  should 
liave  stories  of  the  same  height,  if  they  are  ever  to  be  coiuiected 
by  foot  bridges.  Story  lieights  for  buildings  of  different  width 
are  as  follows: 

Width  up  to  50    ft Ilcinht  of  utory,  12  ft. 

Width  up  to  ".")    ft Ileijilit  of  .story,  1.3  ft. 

Widtli  up  to  100  ft Ileiglit  of  story,  14  ft. 

7.  Receiving,  Storing  and  Shipping  Facilities.— The  im- 
portance of  these  facilities  is  evident  without  discussion.     Goods 


Fi<!.  T).— Roilor  shops  of  tlie  Hahcocii  &  Wilcox  Co.,  Rayonnc,  X.  J. 

nuist  be  received  at  that  part  of  the  works  where  manufacture 
connnences,  and  after  passing  through  the  various  departments, 
will  be  stored  or  shipped  when  finished.  Switch  tracks  should 
branch  off  froiu  main  lines  with  curves  tluit  are  not  too  sharp  for 
standard  locomotives,  with  a  radius  luner  less  than  235  ft.  A 
comtiarisou  of  .stub  end  trackn  and  ciicuits,  yard  "  ladders",  etc., 
is  considered  in  later  pages.     Enough  sidings  and  store -'e  space 


•JO     i:\<;iM:i:in\(!  or  shops  and  favtoriks 

for  raw  nuitt-rials  an-  ■..•cUmI  s,.  llic  railway  .•..inpani.-s  will  have 
n.,  n.a.s.m  f..r  luakii.jr  n-i.tal  char-cs  .m  u.il.KuU>a  cars  (li^is.  .> 
a,„l  ,;)  SterafTL.  spa.c  shouM  Ik-  a.nplo  f..r  raw  nuitonals  anc 
linish.-d  products,  a.  well ,  s  f.  "  'ho  tcMiip'-rary  acconinuKlatum  of 
surplus  slock  in  cours.-  ..f  manufacture.  The  last  .uay  be  greatly 
n.'eae.!  wl.eu  Avurk  in  one  d.-partn.ent  is  .lelaye.l  l.y  accidert  or 
.,l..ence  of  en.plovees,  in  which  case,  floods  from  previous  de- 
part meats  can  -o  into  temporary  sf.rage.     If  this  is  not  provided 


l"ui.  O.^Sliiips  and  rcsidi-ncc  tract,  Trafford  City,  I'a. 

some  departments  will  be  over  h.aded  with  -ioo.ls  wiiile  others  will 
be  delaved,  Ue(iuired  storafie  spa<-e  which  can  as  well  be  out  of 
doors  should  in  the  tabulation  b«;  kept  separate  from  that  which 
must  be  covered.  In  small  phmts,  jtoods  in  com-se  of  manufac- 
ture may  pass  in  U-shape  throuf^li  the  buildinfjs,  so  that  track 
mav  be  needed  on  only  one  side  of  the  i)lant,  raw  nuUerial  being 

iinished  goods 


receivt'd   at  one 


end  of  the  track  platform 


shipped  from  the  other  end  (Fig.  7). 


KCOXOMICS  OF  FACTORY  COSSTIiUCTIOS       27 


8.  Provision  for  Expansion.  -Such  rapid  jnojiiv.ss  is  now  Ih'iiik 
niiulc  in  iill  lines  of  niiuuifactiin',  tiiat  no  i)lant  would  he  oco- 
noinically  phmnt'd  without  provisi  m  for  t-xpansion.  It.  should  in 
fact  he  so  dc'sijinod  tliat  extension  can  ^o  on  at  any  time  without 
serious  interference  with  o])eration  a  pood  way  being  to  lay  out  a 
plant  nuich  larjjer  than  needed,  and  to  huild  only  part  of  it  i  t  first. 
In  many  lines  of  husines-s  it  is  (piite  safe  to  anticii)ate  an  increase 
of  100  per  cent,  in  ten  years,  or  10  percent,  annually.  In  contrast 
to  .systematic  provision  for  extension,  may  i)e  seen  many  old 
plants  which  have  been  enlarged  by  placing  new  biiihlings 
haphazard,  wherever  space  couK'  be  found,  so  that,  viewed  as  a 
whole,  the  idtimate  condition  shows  no  premeditation.     They 


r 


^ 


I'l.:.   7. 

are,  in  fact,  nothing  more  than  a  cluster  of  scattered  l)uildings  in 
which  business  nmst  l)e  comlucted  under  .serious  disadvantage. 
To  extend  a  i)lant  by  cro.ssing  streets  in  tunnels  or  over  bridges, 
is  not  convenient  and  can  usually  be  avoided  if  considered  in 
time.  Some  English  .shops  prefer  .sideway  expansitm  by  the 
removal  of  a  side  wall,  and  the  addition  of  new  buiklings  with 
longitudiiuil  roof  gutters  between  them.  Endway  extension, 
wings,  or  upper  stories,  are  other  methods  of  accomplishing  the 
same  result.  Preliminary  provision  nuist  also  be  made  for  extra 
land  and  for  the  extension  of  yards,  service  tracks  and  trolley 
lines.  Walls  which  must  ultimately  be  removed  should  at  first 
be  made  temporary  or  of  material  which  can  easily  be  taken  down, 
and  reinforced  concrete  should  be  avt>idetl  unless  designed  with 
joints.  Plank  or  sheet  metal  may  be  good  enough  if  the  buildings 
are  not  difficult  to  heat. 

9.  Arrangement  of  Departments. — After  the  machinerj  h.as 
been  .■irramred  and  the  iloor  are.-i.  f)f  each  department  deter- 
mined, including  provision  for  receiving,  storing  and  .shipping,  as 
well  as  for  extension  of  each    the  various  departments  should 


28       ESGISFEIilXC  OF  SIKH'S  AM)  FM'TOUIKS 

tlicii  1)0  uh,s<mii1)Uh1  into  hiiiMings,  usiiiK  regular  types  iis  fur  jw 
lj()H.sil)lf.  Tlii>si>  th-piiitiiifiits  whicli  have  noiso,  .siimkc,  iliist, 
pis,  fumes,  (hI.iis,  or  liif,  must  usually  Ix'  separated  from  the 
rest.  These  will  imhule  th«  rooius  for  paint injr,  jaimnnin;;, 
Hiindin^'.  polishing  and  rattling'.  A  foundry  ami  a  maciiino  shop 
ranmit  well  he  plaeed  in  the  .^ame  huildinj;.  for  the  dust  from  llu! 
first  would  Ix"  a  serious  injury  to  machines,  iiiul  the  online  and 
l)oiler  rooms  of  i)ower  plants  should  he  separated  hy  a  hrick  lire 


p„j  R — Plan  of  Ijuiliiings  as  used  on  new  car  shops  of  the  Canudiiin  Northern 

Ilailroiiil  Company. 

wall.  Yet,  as  previously  .stated,  huildin.irs  of  rej^iilar  type  are 
preferahle  to  .s|)ecial  ones,  for  rearranjiements,  if  needed  are  more 
easily  made.  Union  ami  non-union  men  nuist  sometimes  he 
housed  in  different  huildinj;;^.  Departments  and  huildinjis  should 
be  arrunjted  as  eompactly  as  possihle,  with  space  enoufth  arounvl 
and  between  them,  and  yet  with  no  e.xcess,  so  there  will  be  no 
u.seless  travel,  an  excellent  example  heiitf;  the  AUis-Chalmers 
plant  in  Milwaukee.  In  special  buildings  of  one  story,  shop  offices 
will  have  better  light  and  air  when  set  out  from  the  regular  shop 


ECOSOMKS  or  hWCTOUY  ('OXSTUCCTlOX 


•_'0 


rcctiiti;;l('.  Sn  'i  ( ncluwiircs  as  t<inl  rooms,  ofTicos,  Ii  :k<T.s,  and 
loilrts  limy  so./i.'timcs  \>v  on  a  jjiillriy,  tough  access  by  stairs 
is  an  inconvenience.  Some  areas  may  not  need  eir  'osing,  and 
may  as  w<'il  he  out  of  (htors  with  a  savinji  of  exjienso.  When 
time  will  permit,  it  may  ho  an  advantaKo  to  make  tlra  •  .njjs 
Khowinj;  several  |)ro|)()sed  arrangements  of  departments,  and  in 
the  final  composite,  to  include  ti»e  hest  features  of  them  all. 

The  ftroupiiijc  of  huildiiifrs  slioidd  conform  to  the  course  in 
whicii  floods  travel  in  process  of  manufacture.  In  the  Allis- 
Chaimers  plant  at  Milwaukee,  for  the  manufacture  of  eiifjines  and 


I'lu.  (I. — Plant  of  Nutional  Portluml  (Viiiont  Co.,  Durham,  Ontario. 

maclu'nery,  several  separate  hut  parallel  machine  shops  are  con- 
nected at  one  end  to  an  (rectiiif;  shoj),  while  at  the  other  end 
hut  separated  from  the  machine  shops,  are  a  pattern  shop  and 
foundry,  the  axes  of  which  arc  j)arall(I  to  the  erecting  shop. 
When  additional  floor  space  is  needed,  the  erectiiig  and  pattern 
shops  and  the  foundry  can  be  extended  endways,  and  more 
machine  shops  placed  between  them. 

Another  method  of  grouping  buildings  which  is  very  effective,  is 
to  arrange  them  normal  to  and  right  and  left  of  a  central  axis, 
additions  to  the  buildings  when  needed,  being  made  at  their 
outer  ends  (Kig.  8),  Extensions  do  not  then  disturb  the  origi- 
nal departments  or  cause  any  rearrangement.  This  method 
of  grouping  is  used  on  the  new  car  shops  of  the  Canadian 
Northern  Railway  Company  at  Winnipeg,  and  is  said  to  be  ideal; 


;u)     ]:m,im:i:i!I\<'  "/•'  snors  .\\i>  iwrroini-.s 

tli«-  cciitiiil  :i\is  ill  tlii-i  I'asi'  l.rini,'  all  clt'Viilcl  ciain'way  cnvcnii^ 
l!i"  Hacks  wliiill  clllir  llic  rnli>rclllivi'  hllililililis  il'i;:.  1  lOi. 

1(1.  Preparatory  Design  of  Buildings.-  \\  lieu  ilt|>arliiitiils 
iinvc  liccll  >:l<Mi|M(l  and  airalijit  il  witll  n'fcn'licr  to  racli  nt  luT, 
hk.'lcli  tirsi-ns  iua\  It  iiia.li'  of  the  l.iiililiii.i;s  sliciwiii^;  ihi-  ty|ic 
ami  iiiatciials  uf  iuii-,t  rurt  i.iii  [V'v^.  '.M.  'I'lu'  rlmicc  of  tniililiii}: 
I  \  |M'  i.s  s(iiii('liiii(>s  at'iiMicil  l.y  tlii'ir  ('(niii'iits  ami  llic  (tiit>iil<'  tin' 
risk,  lliuii'iii  ill  iiit>>t  cases  a  tin-pruof  l.iiiMiiiir  is  prcfcrahli-  tumu' 
wliidi  is  iini  liicinouf,  csiii-ciail;-  uluii  tlicir  ((>.-> t.  is  ucaiiy  tlic 
gallic.  Fine  huililui;;s.  wlicii  well  lucatcl,  atv  in  tliciiisclvcs  ati 
a<lvci-tisciiiciit,  aii'l  tli.'V  tcii.l  t"  attract  aii<i  ImM  a  iin.licii-nt 
uriiilc  nf  workiiicii.  'ihc  lniil.lin.'s  .-.liniild  facilitate  pnnliictinii 
l.V  1  heir  ;;n(  111  iiiiiit.  puiv  air.  ami  ruineiiiciit  aiiaii;.;-eiiieiit ,  ami  liy 


S>' 


£a^^^-t^"^,-v  I' 


Flii.   111.— riant  (if  the  Culf  HaK  Co.,  New  (»rlciins,  l.a. 

tiieir  e<|uii)iiieiit.  fcr  lifting  MkI  t  laiisp'Ttin^'  tnat(>rials.  Xopift 
of  tlie  fiainiii.ii-  slmiild  ever  iiiteifere  with  or  himler  t  li(>  i)roce.-.ses 
(>f  proihictioii. 

Some  e.\pemlitiire  may  bo  ])erinissiMe  above  the  absolute 
ininimuiii,  tliouiih  tlii<  will  depeml  <>ii  cirruiiist  aiices.  It  is 
better  to  iiivi^st  l,.ss  m.niey  in  tlie  iilaiit  than  to  incur  a  debt  that 
will  make  dividends  impossible.  .Moreover,  the  prop"Si'd  new 
industry  may  be  out  of  date.  au<l  tlie  l.uildin-s  used  for  other 
j.urpo.ses  loni;  before  periuaueiit  ones  are  worn  out.  This  con- 
dition was  well  illusliated  in  the  manufacture  of  bicycU-s,  for 
only  a  few  years  aiio  many  jilaiits  w(>re  busily  en^ajied  in  niakin;x 
tiiem.  As  liie  demand  for  Tlicin  ha.;  i-  a  ;.;:cat  extent  vv--~i''\. 
those  shops  have  been  i)ut  to  other  uses,  and  it  is  (piito  possible 


EroS(KMl('S  OF  F.\(Tnuy  rn\STinciln.\       31 

fli.'it  sfimc  ,slio|>s  csiiccially  luiilt  for  tlic  iii:iniif:ict\iri'  itf  aiito- 
innliilcs  iti:iy  likmvi.M!  he  pii'  to  ollirr  u-^rs  wIh'M  I  lie  linvclly  of 
tli«'Hc  CDiivcyaiici's  and  the  popular  dc^irf  for  tliciii  lias  iIIimIm- 
islicil.  Th(!  jicni-ral  riilo  is  that  inxcstmciits  arc  pcrr>iissil)U! 
wlicii  the  corroKpondinn  saving;  or  rclurii  from  sticli  invest MientH 
will  pay  interest  on  the  money,  toj;(>tlier  with  maintt'iiance,  cost 
and  depreciation,  with  Homcthin};  left  o\(T  for  i)ro(it.  This  in 
ulTectod  by  the  rate  of  interest,  tlic  nuniher  of  years  that  the 


fj^'^^" 


i-j'v'4lj^_£.^ 


Tio.   U. — Skctcli  for  a  proposed  light  metal  working  shop. 

buildinf;  will  last  and  its  ultimate  scrap  value  when  worn  out. 
In  the  design  of  buildin<;s,  as  well  as  in  the  selection  of  e<iuipmciit, 
tlic  final  result  is  usually  somewhere  between  the  two  e.vtrcme.s 
of  a  perfect  shop  and  a  practical  one. 

When  a  type  of  ])iiildinK  luis  been  ciiosen  which  is  best  suited 
to  tiio  case,   outline   plans  and  elevations  with   one  or   more 

.Vo/i.  -l-'iGs.  11  and  12  from  Article  by  D.  C.  X.Collins,  Knur.  Mueazine, 
Sept.,  l<;07. 


:{2 


l-SaiSKEIilSd  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


perspectives  should  bo  uKule,  that  the  owner  m.v>'  sec  clearly 

Lw  his  Dlant  will  appear  wlien  finished  (Figs.  10,  11,  li  . 

1    Approximate    Cost   Estimate.-After    departments   have 

be  ^™Tand  grouped  in  buildings  to  the  best  advantage, 
n  apprci^ate  estimate  should  be  made  of  the  whole  p  ant  a. 

Zposed      Cost   units   should   be   large   enough    and   liberal 
1  Xngs  mav  be  figured  at  an  approximate  cost  per  squa  e 
Tf  floor  irea    or  per  cubic  foot  of  contents;  land  at  the 
;;   in    d  prco  p";  acre'   machine  equipment  at  a  certain  uni 
;Xr;er':;iare'foot  or'per  employee;  which  unit  will  vary  for 

n 


Fio.  12.-PrcUminary  sketch  for  an  engine  and  boiler  works. 


ailTerent  ki.uls  of  shops.     The  equipment  m  machine  shops    o 
the  manuftuturo  of  medium  or  heavy  nuichiuc  tool.,  ^il  u,st 
about  WOO  per  employee,  or  about  $8  per  square  foot  of  shop 

""*;;;fore  submitting  outline  pkn.  and  c.timatos  to  tlie  o^^^ 
the  engineer  should  figure  out  a  number  of  alternates  b>  which 


^«i 


ECONOMICS  OF  FACTORY  CONSTRUCTION       33 


the  cost  corikl  he  reduced,  for  an  owner  often  tliinks  at  first 
that  lie  needs  a  larger  plant  tJian  he  is  finally  willing  to  accej)t 
when  the  cost  is  considered.  Every  item  of  the  estimate  should 
be  carefully  examined  to  see  if  it  is  warranted,  and  the  engineer 
should  be  prepared  to  show  where  possible  changes  can  be  made, 
and  how  such  will  affect  the  cost. 

Plans  and  estimates  should  then  be  presented  to  the  owner, 
that  he  may  see  if  the  prospective  business  and  profits  are  enough 
to  justify  the  investment.  If  the  expense  is  too  large,  which  is 
often  the  case  at  first,  the  scope  must  be  reduced.  When  both 
owner  and  engineer  arc  satisfied  that  the  proposed  layout  and 
arrangement  are  satisfactory  both  as  to  efficiency  and  cost,  it  is 
then  time  to  proceed  with  the  making  of  detail  plans  and  specifi- 
cations, and  with  actual  construction.  The  prejjaratory  work 
which  is  sometimes  done  by  a  mechanical  or  plant  engineer  in 
consultation  with  the  owner,  is  then  completed. 


CHAPTER  IV 

PRELIMINARY  DESIGN  AND  REPORT  FOR  A  STRUCTURAL 

PLANT 

In  order  to  more  fully  illustrate  the  subject,  an  example  is 
given  of  a  preliminary  design  and  report  for  a  proposed  plant, 
made  by  the  writer  about  twelve  years  ago.  A  small  plant  is 
chosen  in  preference  to  some  larger  ones,  as  it  illustrates  the 
subject  quite  as  well,  with  less  complexity  of  detail.  The  plant 
was  an  adtlition  to  a  rolling  mill  which  was  then  e(iuipi)ed  with 
machine  and  forge  shops,  and  served  by  both  rail  and  water 
shipping.  The  report  is  reproduced  in  full  as  originally  made. 
Location.— The  most  desirable  location  for  the  bridge  plant  is 
somewhere  in  the  vicinity  of  the  steel  mill  from  which  the 
structural  shapes  will  be  received. 

As  a  large  part  of  the  output  from  the  bridge  shop  would  be 
sliipped  by  water,  it  is  desiral)le  to  place  it  near  the  river.  A 
site  just  west  of  the  dock  would  probably  be  suitable. 

It  has  the  disadvantage  of  being  low  and  wet,  and  would 
reiiuirc  considerable  grading  and  filling,  pr()l)ably  not  less  than 
2  ft.  Some  of  the  material  for  filling  would  be  taken  from  the 
building  and  machine  foundations,  but  the  greater  part  of  it 
would  need  to  be  hauled  in  on  cars. 

The  triangular  piece  of  ground,  bounded  by  three  lines  of  rail 
track  at  the  east  end  of  the  :f-l  plant  would  be  desirable. 
This  site  is  drained  by  the  r  ^r. 

Size  of  Lot.— To  carry  oi.  aeme  outlined  in  this  report, 

the  size  of  lot  reciuired  is  no    .         han  400  by  10(M)  ft. 

One  of  the  chief  reiiuiren, -Uio  of  a  modern  bridge  plant  is 
ample  yard  room. 

At  one  end  of  the  yard,  stock  should  be  well  spread  imt  on 
skids,  that  it  may  be  easily  reached  with  little  handling.  This 
end  of  the  yard  should  be  intersected  with  numerous  service 

tracks.  .       .     ,  , 

At  the  other  end  of  the  yard,  where  the  loadmg  is  done,  there 
should  bu  umpio  room  fur  the  storage  of  finished  products,  and 

34 


DESIGN  FOR  A  STRUCTURAL  PLANT 


35 


also  for  loadinji  thorn  on  cam.  There  should  be  space  for  loading 
several  ears  at  one  time,  and  additional  space  for  shop  extension, 
or  the  erection  of  ';i?ier  small  buildings  as  may  be  reciuired. 

Grading  of  Site. — It  is  desirable  to  slope  the  entire  site  on  a 
down  grade  of  al)out  1  per  cent,  in  the  direction  that  the  material 
goes  in  passing  through  the  works.  The  cost  of  this  will  depend 
on  the  site  s(>Iected. 

Arrangement  of  Yard. — The  templet  shop  and  the  stock  yard 
are  located  near  one  end  of  the  main  shop.  From  these,  the 
stock  and  templets  will  be  taken  to  the  laying-out  department. 

It  will  then  pass  on  to  the  punches  and  shears,  thence  to  the 
assemblers,  reamers  and  riveters,  and  last  to  the  milling  and  bor- 
ing machines.  It  is  then  passed  out  at  the  other  end  of  the  shop, 
painted,  and  loaded  on  cars. 

The  broad  gauge  shipping  track  is  shown  passing  between  the 
main  shop  on  one  side  and  the  templet  and  forge  shops  on  the 
other. 

The  main  building  will  have  two  lines  of  service  tracks  passing 
through  it.i  entire  length,  and  the  forge  shop  will  have  a  single 
line  of  track. 

The  stock  yard  will  have  several  parallel  lines  of  service  tracks 
which  are  connected  by  a  transfer-way.  A  service  car  on  any 
track  can  then  be  run  on  the  truck  in  the  transfer-way,  and  run 
off  again  on  any  desired  track. 

Cost  of  the  service  tracks  need  not  exceed  $2500. 

Economic  Production. — In  order  to  produce  economically,  and 
compete  successfully  for  work,  it  is  necessary  that  the  equipment 
should  be  the  best  that  can  be  sccvired. 

In  estinu\ting  on  the  plant,  only  such  an  equipment  has  been 
included  as  is  necessary,  but  everything  is  of  the  l)ost. 

Co-operation  with  Present  Machine  Shop  and  Foundry. — These 
shops  are  already  well  ecpiipped,  and  ai'tcr  the  new  cop.^truction 
is  finished,  will  doubtless  be  able  to  make  some  parts  required  by 
the  structural  plant. 

Such  parts  as  bridge  pins,  turned  bolts,  machine  screws, 
finished  castings,  etc.,  can  be  made  in  the  machine  shop. 

The  foundry  can  j)roduce  all  the  necessary  iron  castings,  and 
equipment  for  makitig  steel  castings  can  be  added.  These  will 
fn'<iuently  be  required  in  first-class  work. 

At  present  there  is  a  corner  of  the  machine  shop  used  for 
boiler  work. 


■^-lii...' 


36       ENGIXEERISO  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTOlilES 

The  tools  in  this  corner  can  1>o  trunsforrod  to  the  structural 
shop,  and  all  such  work  done  there  in  tl'e  future. 

This  will  leave  more  room  in  the  machine  shop,  which  appears 
crowded  at  pr(\sent. 

Scope  of  Plant.— This  estimate  is  for  a  shop  etiiupped  to  ...anu- 
facture  all  kinds  of  bridfie  and  structural  work,  including  pin- 
connected  and  riveted  bridges,  plate  girders,  both  light  and 
heavy  steel  frames  for  l)uildings,  b(>ams,  trusses,  columns,  tanks, 
ore  boxes,  etc.,  etc.  Only  three  priiu'ipal  buildings  arc  outlined 
at  present,  viz.:  the  templet  shop,  forge  shop  and  riveting  shop. 

The  templet  shop  is  to  be  a  two-story  building.  The  upper 
floor  is  to  be  finished  smooth,  and  large  enough  to  lay  out  templets 
for  large  riveted  sections,  such  as  roof  trusses,  etc. 

The^first  storv  will  be  used  at  one  end  for  the  storage  and 
drying  of  lumber,  and  at  the  other  rn  1  for  a  drafting  office. 

"t1u>  forge  shoi)  is  shown  close  enough  to  the  main  shop  so  that 
loads  of  angles  or  beams  tliat  must  be  heated  and  bent,  may  bo 
easily  transferre.l  from  one  shop  to  the  other  and  back  agam. 

It  wouhl  not  be  economical  to  send  such  heavy  material  over 
to  the  present  blacksmith  .shop,  a  distance  of  nearly  one  mile,  and 
back  again  to  the  structural  shop  for  rivc-ting  and  punchmg. 

Loop  rods,  clevises,  rivets,  and  miscellaneous  forging  will  be 

done  here. 

Th(>re  will  be  an  i.p-set.ting  nuichine,  an  anneahng  furnace, 

power  hammers,  etc. 

The  roof  trusses  will  be  arranged  with  trolleys  and  hoists  for 

lifting  material. 

The  riveting  shop  will  have  traveling  carriages,  trolleys,  and 
iK.ists  hea%y  enough  to  handle  the  heaviest  girders,  and  other 
lighter  ones  for  lighter  and  smaller  work. 

The  l)uildings  will  all  1)C  well  lighted. 

The  forgo  shop  will  have  a  timl)er  frame. 

For  the  other  two  buildings,  estimates  are  made  for  making 
the  walls  either  of  masonry,  or  corrugated  iron  on  plank. 

To  start  with,  it  is  the  intention  to  have  only  such  l)Uildings 
and   tools   as   are   necessary  to   turn   out   work   economically. 

Other  small  buildings  may  be  added  in  the  future. 

Future  Extension  of  Plant.— The  design  should  be  made  so  that 
the  end  can  be  removed  and  the  buildings  made  longer. 

Other  small  buildings  will  be  required  as  busiuusa  increases. 
The  follow'xg  may  be  needed: 


'i5?* 


DESIGN  1  OR  A  STRUCTURAL  PLANT  37 

Paint  shop, 

Storage  liouse  for  oroctioii  tools  and  rigging, 

Separate  office  huilcling, 

Plate  bending  shed,  etc., 

but  none  of  these  are  included  in  the  present  estimate. 

Method  of  Constructing  Buildings. — The  forge  sliop  may  be 
put  up  first  and  used  temporarily  as  a  structural  shop.  This  is 
designed  with  a  wood  frame  that  can  be  built  on  the  ground  by 
carpenters. 

Only  such  tools  need  be  used  as  are  necessary  for  manufactur- 
ing the  frames  for  the  other  two  buildings.  These  machines  may 
be  placed  oii  temporary  timber  foundations. 

Templets  for  these  two  buildings  may  be  made  in  the  present 
pattern  shop,  and  drawings  in  the  attached  office. 

Then  when  the  permanent  buildings  are  constructed,  the  tools 
may  be  removed  from  the  forge  shop  to  the  main  riveting  shop, 
and  set  up  on  concrete  foundations. 

Under  the.se  conditions,  the  cost  of  manufacture  will  of  course 
'i)e  excessive,  luit  it  will  be  quite  as  satisfactory  as  waiting  for 
some  other  shop  to  manufacture  the  frame. 

FORGE  SHOP 

Size:   10  ft.  I)y  10()  ft.     20  ft.  under  trusses. 
WiKxl  frame,     ("ovcriii);,  c<irru);;itcil  iron  on  plank. 
'rru.s,s»>s  8  ft.  apart. 
Trolleys  on  tie  Iwanis. 

10-ft.  continuous  sji.sh  all  around  under  eave.s. 
S-ft.  monitor  with  swing  sa.sh. 

E.>«Ti.\iATE  OF  Cost 

Cost  of  building  complete  ( including  foundations) .  $3500 

Machinery: 

1  up-setting  macliine $  800 

1  rivet  and  holt  former 1200 

1  annealing  furnace 300 

4  forges  (from  present  Macksmith  shop) 

4  anvils  (from  present  hlacksmith  shop) 

1  steam  Immmer 800 

1  steam  hammer 1500 

(i  lioists  at  $50 300 

100  ft.  track 00 

4  service  cars 1)30         -5120 

Total  cost $8620 


38       J'M.IM^HiaXG  OF  SIIUI'S  AXD  FACTOlilES 


TEMPLET  SHOP  AND  OITICE 

Size:  oO  fl.  1,/  1"0  ft.     Two  .stories.     Stce!   frume.     Masonry 
Tj  t  cf  l)iii''i;  >K,  complete,  including  floor,  foumiatiorih 

ii'jj,   iieuiiiij;,  etc 

If  the  walls  are  made  of  plank,  covered  with  corrugated 

iron,  the  cost  will  bo  SISOO  less. 
Maciiinery: 

1  wood  i)lanpr S2()0 

<' drills :j(M) 

1  saw 200 

1  band  saw 400 

1  motor 2(K) 

Belts,  imlleys,  etc 2(K) 

6  sets  small  tools   200 


Total  co.st . 


walls. 

linl.t- 

.*14,:500 


1,700 


.?1 0,000 


BUIIXiE  fiUOV 

Size:  80  ft.  by  400  ft.     22  ft,  IiIkIi  under  trusses.     St(H>l  frame. 
Masonry  walls.      Hoof:  eorrucated  iron  on  plank. 

Cost  of  building — including  floor  and  foundation  .  .  S2S,3(X) 

Etjuipment : 

Cranes  and  hoists .*17,.">00 

Heating 2.(>(H) 

]:iectrio  lighting S(H1 

Machinery  foundations   1,200 

Skids  and  rails l.IJOO 

Service  tracks jjoo 

'M  CATS SOO 


Tot.  '  t:ost . 


21,400 


$52,700 


M.VCIIIXK  TOOLS  FOR  PHOPoSED   HHIDtiE  SHOP 


1  plate  she.ir  for  00  in.  X  1  in.  metal,  motor  driven $ 

1  angle  .shear  for  8  in.XS  in.  X  1  in 

1  angle  shear  for  5  in.  X.)  in.  x:{  4  in 

1  bar  shear  for  12  in.  XI  1,4  in 

1  punch  :{()  in.  throat  for  11,4  in.  holes  in  I  in 

1  punch  20  in.  throat  for  114  in.  hoh^s  in  1  in 

2  ])uncli;-s  10  in.  throat  for  angle  0  in.  xO  in.  x  1  in 

1  I)late  <'dge  i)laner 

1  boring  machine  for  iiin-holes 

1  beam  saw  for  2  I  in.  beams 

1  beam  saw  for  1.')  in.  beams 

1  beam  coping  and  notching  machine 

Milling  niaciiiiR-,  54  in.  licad 

lieuder  and  straightencr  for  beams  and  angles 


4,500 
;j,500 
2.5(KI 
2,(MJ0 
1,000 
1,500 
2,200 
4,500 
1,500 

i,;joo 

600 
1,800 
3,100 
2,200 


DEHWS  FOR  A  STRVCTIRAL  PLANT 


39 


1  air  conipnw.sor 

2  riveters,  2")  in.  roiicli  (conipri's.st'd  air). 
1  riveter,  30  in.  reach  (coniprcs.sed  air). . 
1  riveter,  5 J  in.  reacii  (cDmpressoil  air).  . 
10  hoists 


2,500 

800 

500 

500 

500 

12  drills  and  reamers ■    1,000 

500 

500 

200 


l'i|)inj;  for  drills  and  reamers. 

('hi|)|>ers  and  caulkers 

4  rivet  furnaces 

2  emery  wheels  ' 
2  Rriiid  stones. 

1  bar  shear 

1  threading  machine  for  hmIs, 

1  allele  heatiiiR  furnace 

4  elect rio  motors 


50 

500 
400 
100 
h(K) 


Total  co.st . 


*tl,7."iO 


Loading  Facilities. — To  loud  lioavy  work  economically,  an 
outdoor  traveling;  crane  is  ncces.saiy. 

For  tlie  present,  however,  loadini;  may  he  done  hy  two  derrick.s 
capable  of  lifting  about  20  ton.s  each.  They  may  oe  operated 
by  two  electiic  hoisting  engines. 

Cost  of  two  derricks  at  .?i400 4    MK) 

Cost  of  two  hoisting  engines  at  .StMK) 1,200 


.«2,()00 

Erecting  Tools  and  Machinery. — Tiie  numl)er  of  erecting  tools 
and  amount  of  material  required,  depends  on  the  nature  of  the 
structure  to  l)e  erected,  and  the  number  of  contracts  ju  hand  at 
any  one  time. 

In  erecting  tiic  frame  of  the  templet  and  bridge  shops,  the 
parts  may  be  hoisted  with  a  gin  pole. 

The  cost  of  the  necessary  rigging  including  rope,  pulleys,  hoists, 
guys,  timber,  gin  jjole  and  hoisting  engine,  need  not  exceed 
$1500. 

Power. — In  the  bridge  .shop,  all  of  the  large  machines  will  be 
driven  by  direct  connected  electric  motors,  and  the  small  ones 
by  compressed  air. 

A  few  small  ones  such  as  threading  macliines,  grinders,  etc., 
will  be  belt  driven.  These  may  be  grouped  and  the  overhead 
shafting  turned  by  a  separate  electric  motor. 

The  templet  shop  machinery  may  be  belt  driven,  and  power 
furnished  by  a  separate  electric  motor. 


40 


K\(!isi:i:iu\(!  OF  SHOPS  axd  factories 


(OST  (.1    <t»MPU;Ti;   BUIUGE  I'LA 
Sliiiiiiiary: 

(iriuliiiK 

S<.rvio(>  truiko 

KorKc  .slio|),  l>uilcl|iiK      

l''i>rKi'  ^liop,  tools 

Templet  .slio|)  uiid  oflitv 

.Miu'hiiicry 

Uridnc  sliop,  liuil.liiij;  uii.l  ciiiipmcnt,     .    . 
lirl(lK«  shop,  tools 

LoiKJiriR  .Icrricks  uiid  ftiRiiics 

Krectliin 


-NT 

$     3 

2 

a 
r>, 

14 

1 

2, 

1, 


(H)0 

.:m) 

.dOO 
120 

,;»)0 

,7()0 
7()0 
7.-.0 
(MJO 


Tola!  coNt . 


«12S,()70 


MAfinXK   T<)(H,S   roil   TKMl'OKAIiV   SII()1>- 


-4"   FT.    HY    KM)  IT. 


1  pliitc  filii'iir,  for  3r>  in.  x  1  iti 

1  aiijrli-  .siicur,  for  (>  in.  <  (i  in,  ^  }  i„ 
1  bar  .sliear,  for  12  in.  X  1  in 

1  i)unch,  30  in.  throat 

1  punch,  10  in.  throat 

1  beam  saw  for  24  in.  bcam.s 

("opiuK  and  noteliing  machine 

Hender  and  straiglitener 

Air  comi)r<'ssor 

2  riveters  (compre.s.sod  air) 

10  lioist.s  (conipres.sed  air) 

12  drills  and  reamers  (compress.-d  air). 
Piping  for  drills  and  reamers 

Chippers  and  eatilkers 

2  rivet  furnaces 

1  threading  machine 

2  motors 


2,500 

2,500 

2,(H)0 

1,600 

1,1(M) 

1,300 

1,S(X) 

2,200 

2,.'')()0 

8tH) 

500 

l.(HM) 

.">(K) 

.")00 

1(H) 

4(K) 

400 


'Jotal . 


$21,700 


(OST  OF  TK.MPORAUY  PLA.NT 

One  building  40   ft.   by    KM)  ft.   an.l   machinery  necessarv   for   making 

biulding  Irames.  '  '' 

^,'™""« $      500 

N.rv.co  tracks 4,^, 

'?""'"'« 3,500 

'""'" 21,700 


Load! 


E 


Mg  derricks  and  c 


r  'ding  tools 


ngiiuv 


2,(M)0 
I, .500 


Total  cost. 


$29,000 


«•  vaKBK*J?aPS»£3E«5aEB'  -^l^ae£i^9mil^^m'--^:^-'^^-i^''i^mi'^^^f9. 


'^^,;.n■ 


DESKjy  FOli  A  SriiVVTUHM  PLANT  41 

PnoMT  ox   I.WK.STMENT 

Count  then  on  an  output  of  10,(M)0  tons  por  vcar  which 
«  u  low  ...stunatc.  Fron.  personal  knowledge  .■..n.petit'ors  are 
producing  20,00()  ton-s  per  year. 

yah.,,  of  10,<KK)  tons  at  $7(»  |.,.r  to,,  is   $7,K),n00 

lro..t  at  10  ,.,.r  ...... t -„  ,^^ 

l'ro,,os...l  inv..st,.....,t g,.,„_,^ 

Int<.r,.,t  <>.,  *i:«),(MH)  at  7  jH.r  ,...„f ,,  ^^^ 

l)..|)r(...iati<..i  oil  Mock  at  .i  iht  t(.|it .  •{'.„,(, 

N.'t  i.rofit:  $,0,000,  l.-ss  $13,000,  ,M,„als  $-,7,000 
This  is  44  per  cent,  clear  yearly  profit  on  the  money  invested. 


«'  •:..  i.pmi:f:i.  '.rw7.Mr. 


■^K 


■srssr-mzji 


f'IIAI'Ti:R  V 


GENERAI.  DESIGN 

Having  completed  in  stifiatioiis  of  the  Eronomics  of  Factory 
Construction,  and  decided  all  matters  relating  to  the  eflfect  of 
liiiildinjis  upon  output  ami  elficieucy,  detail  designs,  drawings, 
and  si)ecilications  must  lie  jirepared.  These  will  he  l)a.se<l  upon 
the  outline  sketches  or  i)erspectives  and  cost  estimates  previously 
made. 

Construction  bids  on  projjosed  new  buildings  are  usually 
lowest  when  drawings  are  very  plain,  with  little  or  no  chance  for 
misunderstanding.  The  reason  for  this  is  evident,  as  all  con- 
tractors then  have  exactly  the  same  data  upon  which  to  ha.-e 
their  bids,  and  tenders  are  likely  to  be  more  uniform.  On  the 
otluT  hand,  if  the  plans  are  indefinite,  contractors  will  not 
feel  safe  in  bidding  uidess  an  item  i>  addeil  to  cover  uncer- 
tainties. Clear  ami  accurate  working  diawings  also  pay  for 
themselves  many  times  over  in  the  mistakes  which  are  thereby 
avoided. 

While  standard  house  plans  In  book  form  are  aliundant,  then; 
ficems  to  be  little  or  nothing  of  the  kind  yet  available  for  shops 
and  fact(<rics,  new  ones  in  nearly  all  cases  Ix-ing  built  to  order. 
This  need  for  special  i)laniiing  makes  pl(>nty  of  work  for  Mill  and 
industrial  Engineers.  I  i  addition  to  the  detail  plans  for 
construction,  drawings  must  also  be  made  for  the  interior  equip- 
ment, including  heating,  ventilating,  liirhting,  i)lumbing.  electric 
wiring,  jiower  generation  and  transmission,  line  shafting,  fire 
protection,  handling  ajijiliances,  yards  and  tracks,  and  for  all 
other  features  of  a  s])ecial  nature.  The  building  must  serve  ■ 
shelter  for  its  occupants  and  ecjuiprnent,  should  give  suijjiort  tor 
shafting  and  machinery  when  needed,  and  form  support  for 
crane  and  other  handling  appliances.  It  shoukl  also  faciiitate 
as  far  as  possible  the  economic  management  of  labor. 

He^'ore  starting  detail  drawings,  the  structural  engi;-.ecr  if  he 
is  not  already  supplied,  shoukl  have  data  or  .sngges'i.-iis  from 
the  owner  on  matters  peitaining  to  construction,  so  that  the 

42 


(!Esi:i{.\i.  i)i:si(!\ 


43 


owner's  prcfcirnccs  in  tlicsc  niiilicrs  may  t>c  dliscrvcd  jiiui  tlie 
pluii.s  and  «|)('(ilicatii)ii.s  .suited  In  cniiditioiis.  He  sliould  also 
have  coinplcti?  data  on  the  followiiif;  siilijects: 
Climate,  possiliility  of  cartlnpiake.s  or  cyi'lones,  j)revailinK  storms, 
cxtretnes  of  heat  and  eoi<l,  inaxinmni  piccipitution  and 
f<now  fail,  dei)tii  of  winter  frost,  etc. 
Survey  oi  lot,  sliowin^;  stortn  and  roof  .sewers,  .sanitary  Hewer.s, 

grade  and  lot  lines,  water  and  ^^as  pipes,  etc. 
Nature  and  liearin^  power  of  soils. 

Local  laws  relating  to  huilding  construction,  smoke,  etc. 
Kegulation  of  lire  insurance  coinpanies, 
Proposed   water   supply    for  shop   service,   sanitation,    fire   and 

spriidvler  pi|)es,  condensers,  etc. 
Machinery  layout  for  each  ilej)artment. 

Assumed  door  loads-  weights  of  largest  pieces,  crane  loads,  etc. 

Foundations  for  huihlings.  machines,  yard  cranes,  etc.,  with  •:-)'• 

of   special    i)rovisi()n    for    underground    pipes,    tunnels,    or 

drains,  which  may  interfere  with  foundations. 

Height  of  stories,  or  overhead  space  for  largest   machines  and 

materials. 
Power  and  transmission,  whether  hy  belt,  roi)e,  shafting,  electric 
wuos,  with  provision  for  steam  and  air  pipes  where  needed. 
Methods  of  heating. 
X'entilating  methods. 
Lighting   of   shops,    yards,    and   entrances,    ])articularly   where 

affected  hy  adjoining  high  i)uildings. 
Plumhing  and  sanitation  and   the  etTe<'t   of  health   regulation.s 
thereon.      Installation  of  pipes  for  air,  water  and  sprinkler 
systei.is. 
Fire  protection  .system. 

Conveying  and  hoisting  ajjpllances  for  materials. 
Arrangement  of  tracks,  swii'  lies,  scales,  etc. 

Width  of  huildiiifr,  position  .if  columns,  kind  of  material,  floors, 
walls,  partitions,  ili.ors,  windows,  roof  fiaming,  roofing,  and 
other  features  of  construction. 
Many  of  these  subjects  will  he  discussed  in  the  following  pages, 
and  each  must  receive  the  attention  that  it  merits. 

I'hotographs  should  he  freely  made  ahout  the  new  site  and 
then  nunihered,  the  direction  in  which  each  one  was  taken  heing 
uidicaled  hy  an  arrow  with  its  corresponding  numher  on  a  print 
of  the  lot  plan.     These  photographs  will  he  useful  for  reference 


n      i:.\<,i\i:i:i!i\(i  OF  siioi',^    \\h  t'A'ToiiiFs 


ill  (lie  (Mi^;iM<'('r^  olfico  aiul  ;u«'  ;ilu;i_v-  valu.ililc  rccMiils  wliirh 
caiiiiiH  lie  (li>|iii)\ '  '• 

Esthetic  Treatment.  Art isiic  troatiiitui  iiiniicni  plants  is 
often  ;i  part  n\  ,i  dcliii'tc  pnliiy  of  llicif  iMioi-  i'  may  !"' 
raniiMl  nut  fur  1 1  pinji.  i.-failvcii  -ill'-:  r  to  sitti  c  '  n<l)iil<i 
a  ^iiidii  riass  tif  ciiiplnv  1  ,  ^.  wilfaii'  features  ipficii  licin  ■  nHli..i'(i 
for    tlic   same   fc     na.      liiiiMiiris    may    iinlccd   (ifli  ■('    :iuido 

attraiti\i'  in  api  iiiinc  liii.  i;{)  at  little  nv  m,  in,  ,  ..scd  .i-t 
o\er  tlinse  'liili  •,::f  m  vriely  plain.  Hit'  tencieiii  it!  reeetii 
years  is  ti)  '"  iitify  imt  nIv  mantifaet  Miiiir  plants,  Inn  ■;'!  i>tli  r 
titilitariati  .--t  >  ictures  aiui  <  n;:  ineerinj;  w^e  ks  sni  ^  da'  power 
plan's,  \,il'     s,  '  tc.      Wa  I'r   u>\\    <<  wiicp   en'     >sod  \  ■,;..    walls', 


I'ni.  i:i. — <  itlii'C  iiii'i  uork~  iif  I       •  Im;:  A    MariiiMiifciicr  f' 


.k.  ■•,  W 


have  aliiuera;:         iiue  i  witi,  j:tiint  .iii'    npeii  fraiii- 

injr.     ('(il'ii'd   tile-     nay    ''■        c,      .ii    ronf       ^nd   "      Is   may   ho 
relieved  vnh  cnf     .'s.   t>'  .  .  >a>.  diffeunt   material 

or  ciilui-etl  ].ane;         (1    _  Int-      ii~         liiiiklinfrs  may  ho 

paiiileil  wliile  ■'.'.'■  lijii;       me     an'       iay   i       relie    d  with  a 

simple  >tencil   ,      !.,•     n   ti-     "  i-oar  th'      eilin^.   or  with 

<»c<'a,-iiinal  deeerai      (>  panels. 

Wind   Pressure.     Winl    pre-      o   "U   roIati\         -mall    aroas 

vaiies  in  amount  \       ■.  !;ie  hei'jiit   al)n\i'  tlio  jiruiiU'!       This  was 

prov<'n    l)y   ox|ierin;<     Is   man       •!   ]']n<;land   hy   Stoi)iionson,   on 

urlai''s  at  hi'ijiiis  ,,-,  ."),   pi    T         ',  and  '>0  ft.  al)o\e  jiround,  his 

uhser    ations   (nvi  'ii   ■    a  its   of   varviiij;   velocities   with 


(;i:\i:i{.\f,  />/>■/<,•  v 


pr.'     iir.-s  ,.f   I         4.]   II,.   ,„,,.  s.|,i:iiv  fn 
of  ili.'si'  v\\,n-l'.  iciits  arc  ;i.s  follows: 


Th 


•'  ii\rni;:f  n'siilts 


1 1.— Details  of  market  huildiiiK. 


SIKI'I! 

Hci«lit  ill".-  .  pr 
ill  fiH't 

25 
15 
10 


s  i;\ri;Ki.Mi;\Ts  ior  wind  phkssire 

•"'"'  ^^ill'l    pr.-sMirc    per   Miuaro 

foot    ill    |)IMlll(ls 
I'it.l 

LT).!) 
•_'■-' .  H 
21   2 

•"'  i:{.8 

_  Tlioso  results  sIkw  i-olatlvo  prnporf ions  oiilv,   .m  <'omp.u-M- 
tivoly  small  oxposcl  anvis.     As  l,uiMiii-s  le.i.l,   more  ..-•  ' 
to  sli.'ltor  each  other,  pspccially  in  districts  wlicro  tliov  .■ 
surroim.hMl,  jt  is  usually  sufficient  at  a  height  of  SO  ft" 
above  ground,  to  provide  for  a  wind  Dressnre  of  40  H.   • 
foot  a.ul  for  less  lieight  to  reiluco  this  pressure  accord, 
formula  />^4\/i/  +  5 


40 


E\(!iM:i:in\n  of  shops  am)  factories 


wlioro  /'  is  tli(>  wind  prcs-iurc  in  pdumis  per  sqiiair  fciot,  and  // 
flic  liciiilit  infect  In  tile  area  in  (lucstion.  This  nives  rcsidts  con- 
fdiininj;  closely  with  Stepliciison's  oxperinients,  tJie  results  being 
shown  on  the  foUowinj;  diajirain. 

As  a  win<l  pressure  of  '.\()  11).  p(T  scjuarcfoot  corresponds  with  a 
velocity  of  70  to  80  miles  per  liour,  and  can  occur  only  during 
violent  storms  or  luirricanes  in  exposed  places,  it  is  rare,  indeed, 
when  a  jrreater  i)ress\u'c  neeil  l)e  assumed.  The  tendency  in  urban 
districts,  for  buildinjis  to  shelter  each  other,  i>  so  effective  that  it  ia 
freijuently  nuite  safe  to  entirely  disregard  wind  pressures  up  to  a 
lieijjht  of  L'O  to  30  ft.  above  frround.  There  is  a  tendency  on  larjre 
wall  areas  toward  eiiualizalion  of  pressure  at  varying  heights, 

owing  to  the  elasticity  of  the  air, 
the  condition  being  different  to 
that  in  Stephenson's  experiments, 
which  were  on  snuiU  areas. 

Wind  pressure  on  the  interior 
of  buildings  may  be  serious,  es- 
pecially where  the  sides  re  partly 
open,  or  broken  with  many  doors 
or  windows  through  which  air  cur- 
rents may  enter.  Need  of  protec- 
tion against  inside  upward  pres- 
stire  has  long  been  know-n,  for  in 
some  exposed  districts  in  Europe, 
it  has  been  the  custom  for  the 
peasants  to  load  their  roofs  with 
rocks.  The  ends  of  high  single- 
story  buildings,  such  as  erection 
shops  with  traveling  cranes,  are 
often  harder  to  l)race  than  are  tiie 
sides,  for  they  lack  substantial 
bracing  at  the  lower  chord  level 
and  at  intiM'uieiliate  heights. 
When  tlie  sides  are  open  enough  to  admit  free  air  currents,  wind 
ju'essure  on  tiie  two  sides  will  be  nearly  eipial,  and  the  sum  of 
these  sides  will  be  the  area  vuuler  jjicssure.  Wind  conditions 
will  evi<lent!y  \;nv  in  ditTerent  huililings,  and  each  one  should  be 
IM'oportinned  ;i(r(irdiiig  to  its  neeils. 

Pressure  normal  to  the  roof  surface  for  angles  up  to  75  degrees 
from  the  horizontal,  corresponding  with  wind  pressures  of  40  lb. 


80 
70 
60 

1 

.5  BO 

O  40 

t 

Z 

a 
2  30 

B 
20 

— 

j 

-/ 

1 
1 

/ 

/ 

10 

0 

^ 

0         10         20         ao         10 

Maximum  Pressure  in  Lbs.  utr  Sg.  f  t. 
Yu:.    l.l. 


--aas*-;'U' 


GENERAL  DESIGN 


47 


per  square  foot,  on  a  vertical  .suiface  may  he  ol)tained  from  the 
following  formula: 

P=40  sin(.l  +  lo  clejirees) 

whore  .1  is  tlie  angle  wliich  the  roof  plane  makes  with  the  horizon- 
tal. The  results  are  conveniently  shown  hy  the  following 
dia-rram,  wiiich,  if  made  on  tracing  cloth,  may  i)e  laid  over  roof 
drawings  of  any  slope  and  the  corresponding  normal  wind  pres- 
sure read  off  directly. 


p:  40  sin  (04- 15') 
^„pcofKoofi„o 


10  20  30 

WinJ  i  ressure  in  Lbs.  per  S<i.  In. 

FlO.    16. 


40 


Floor  Loads.-Live  h.ads  on  floors  vary  greatlv  according  to 
the  mdustry,  the  laigest  ones  fre.juently  l.cing  in  nietal  woi-kin- 
siK.ps.  Uie  floors  of  cotton  mills  can  ge.u>rallv  he  light  for  the 
total  M-eight  of  machinery,  men  and  materials  will  seldom  exceed 
M)  Ih.  per  s.piare  foot.  Stories  8  to  9  ft.  in  height  used  for  the 
storage  of  cotton  hales,  .should  he  j..-opo,tio,ied  for  an  imposed 
load  of  100  to  1.-.0  Ih.  per  s.p.are  foot,  while  higher  ones  for  general 
storage  and  packin,-,  might  he  suhject  to  200  Ih.  Rooms  for 
pattern  storage  rarely  carry  more  than  l.>0  Ih.  on  the  R,,ua.e  foot 
Hui  .lings  for  light  machinery  fre.juently  have  provision  for 
loa.ls  .)f  2:)0  to  ,'300  Ih. 

Unit  Stresses.-A  fa.tor  of  f.,ur  is  sufhcient  f,)r  dead  an.l  live- 
loa.l  stresses,  hut  for  greater  c.mhinations  such  as  dea.I.  live  and 
<'iane    loads    all  a<-(ing  together,  a  fa.'L.r  ..f  safetv  of  three  i.s 

mgh.  Th(.tempf.raryhuil.lingsf.,rth..(',,Iunihiani;xp..siti..nat 
(.hicago  in  ]mi.  wen  propnpf innod  for  tensile  stresses  of  20  OUO 
to  2o,000  lb.  per  s.iuare  inch  of  section  on  steel.     Comparatively 


.Mfi'u. 


-IS     J-:\<;i.\Ki':i{is<;  of  shops  axd  factoiuks 


liijrh  unit  strcssos  arr  usually  pcnnissihle  on  hiu'ldinj^s  oxcpptinR 
perhaps  in  columns,  for  it  is  well  known  that  such  structures  rarely 
fail  by  the  collapse  of  their  princijjal  parts,  hut  rather  rack  to 
pieces   from    the   vihration    of    cranes    and    lieavy    machinery. 


ROOF    TRUSSES. 
Stresses,  Bevels  and  Lengths 


To  fmd  stresses  in 
any  truss,  multiply 
stresses  grivcn  by 
the  panel  load. 


/'.Vt'4/J  )=+(!.,«)-• 

To  find  stresses  in 
any  truss,  multiply 
stresses  fsivcn  by 
the  i>ancl  load. 


/'  -  V('4ft)-+(T7/OS 

To  find  stresses  in 
any  truss,  multiply 
stresses  Riven  by 
the  panel  load. 


Fi<i.   17. 

Stress  Analysis  in  Building  Frames. — The  ca.scs  to  he  considered 
in  determininfi  tin    stress  in   building     '.■.'.. -^h  are  as  follows: 

1.  Stress  in  roof  trusses  and  columr      i         permanent  dead 
load. 

2.  Stress  from  wind  acting  nortnal  to  roof  surface,  with  trusses 
aupporlc'd  on  side  wails. 


GENERAL  DESIGN 


40 


3.  Stresses  in  trusses,  columns  and  knee  braces,  from  wind  on 
side  of  building  and  roof,  either  horizontal  or  normal  to  surface 
(a)  with  columns  hinged  as  base,  (b)  with  columns  fixed  at  base! 

Partial  loading  can  never  cause  maximum  stress  in  the  parts  of  a 
Fink  truss,  as  it  may  in  some  other  truss  forms. 

Calculation  of  truss  stresses  is  greatly  simplified  by  the  use  of 
coefficients  giving  the  stress  in  eacn  piece  from  panel  load  of 
unity,  some  of  these  coefficients  being  given  in  the  following 
diagrams. 

Knee  Braces.  -Judging  from  the  elaborate  analysis  given  in 
some  books  of  the  stresses  in  building  frames  with  knee  braces, 


a  person  might  almost  believe  that  this  comparatively  simple 
f<>uture  should  receive  .juite  a  large  part  of  an  engineer's  att<-ution 
when  planning  such  structures.  On  the  contrary,  the  anaivsis 
of  such  stress  is  very  simple,  though  it  is  affected  to  some  extent 
by  local  conditions,  such  as  the  detail  of  column  base,  and  amount 
of  anchorage;  nature  of  walls,  whether  clo.se.l  or  paitly  open  etc 
In  many,  if  not  in  most  cases,  the  experienced  designer  can  see 
from  inspection  that  computation  of  stresses  from  knee  braces 
IS  unnecessary,  as  they  are  insignificant.     But  when  buildings 


•^'•^  iCJIWiS  f^.=^««''^''^3HTCPWi 


■)0       ESaiSKKIUXd  OF  S/IOPS  AXD  F  AC  TORI  EH 

aro  liiRh  and  oxposo,!  to  stn.n-  wi.ul,  invcstiVation  of  knee  l.rucc 
stress  may  ho  lurde.l.     It  is,   however,   imjx.rtant  tl.at   k.,.>e 
hra.es  have  riKid  fnu,,!,,.  at  tl.eir  extremities  (I-if;.  18),  and  tiiey 
siiould  conneet  to  a  truss  panel  where  the  members  are  heavy 
en<,ugh  to  resist  compression.     At  the  other  end  of  the  l,race 
tlie  column  must  be  firm  enough  to  resist  bending,  web  lattice 
fre,iuently  bc-inf;  too  li-jht  for  rij-idity.     The  knee  brace  problem 
IS  quite  similar  to  one  of  the  simplest  in  bridge  analysis    viz 
the  proportionlns  of  portals.     Columns  may  be  considered'  fixed 
at  the  base  when  they  are  firmly  anchored,  or  when  they  have 
enou«ii  load  on  them  to  hold  them  s-iuarely  down.     A  lai-e  one- 
story  steel-frame  metal  workin-  shop  which  was  inspectcfby  the 
writer  after  its  collapse  during  erection,  but  after  columns  had 
'>«;'^n   anchored,    illustrates   the   case.     The   c.lumns   remained 
with  their  buses  fixed  to  the  foundations  an.l  bent  at  about  one- 
tlurd  of  their  height,  the  whole  frame  falling  in  one  direction 


r^  H^ 


r^ 


Fin.  10. 


JL 


I  >n  ended  action  is  sehlom  found  in  building  columns  Wind 
pressures  on  ti.e  bents  may  usually  be  considered  as  transferred 
o  the  oun.lation  in  e.,uul  amounts  on  the  two  sides,  for  if  the 
leaward  braces  and  columns  are  not  stressed  at  first,  defiectlon 
<.f  the  windward  side  will  bring  the  other  into  action 

Columns  shouhl   be  proportioned   not  only  for  their  direct 
load,  but  also  for  the  bending  stress  and  a.hlitional  load  on  them 
fn.m  the  overturning  effe.-t  of  wind  on  the  buil.ling  as  a  whole 
causing  givater  load  un  the  win.lward  onos 

Additional  Notes.-In  conclusion,  the  design  should  l,e  eare- 
ully  studied    out.  preferably  on  small  sheets  of  paper,  81   by 

tL'?;:   '■'''Y''"'"T  '""''"'     '"'"^'  ''''''  ""''  «""»""'l   ^l^tails. 
Ihe  upper  flange  of  crane  guder.  may  be  stiffened  laterally  by 


f^.^TiR  m^mm^^imr^^^'^:^7m^i\mm^ 


ohWKif.iL  i)i':si(;x  gj 

plaoiM,,  an.„l..r  I,,.,,,,  or  ..i.a.uu.l  witl.  its  wol,  in  a  hovhonVA 
pos„u.n  al...vo  tl.e  pWucipai  u.u,  the  upper  one  h.-i,,,  K-  ed 
tl.  ..„,i.  the  web  to  the  fiance  of  the  o,»e  beneath  it  (Fi:     <, 

i  ho  .le.s,,.n  .sh<,uld  al.so  be  c.he,.kecl,  an.l  evorv  part  reemusiderecl 
lu'fore  .■unstru.-tn.n.  Any  parts  which  are  found  to  l>c  ,Ze'  " 
-ry  n,ay  then  be  on.itted,  or  additional  ones  n.av  be  in  od  ced 
where  needed.  The  dead  wei-d.t  sl.ouid  be  ..figured  to  «^  that 
I  -•...■«  not  exeeed  that  whieh  was  assun.d.  C^o  o  .we  j'w 
.ns  or  general  dnnvn.,s  shouhl  be  n.ade.  ,ivin.  ail  the  frauZ 
M.e.  and  .enera  duuensions,  these  plans  serving  as  a  .uide  for 
the  .Irafts.uen  wh,>n  making  the  details 

Specifications  -l-nless  a   building  speeifieation   is  clear  and 

uu  <>  nusunde..tan.li,^  will  surely  arise,  with eorres^^u  ir^^y 

In^hu   ten.h-.s.     Successful  contractors  are  not  willing  to  take 

-.•kless  chances,  and  they  usual!,-  add  enough  to  1 1    ir    1,1  t.! 

-ver  any  pou.ts  which  are  indefinite.     Then,  if  the  con  n u^ 

••.•un,,,  ,na  constru,.tion  should  be  carried  ou    in  a  clu'  per  wu  " 

iKur  profit  wo.dd  be  in.-reased.     For  the  sake  of  del  ness   ii; 

v.-.t.ug  of  specdl..ations  should  be  deferred  until  all  deta  is  of 

V  Sn; :;;  r  •"•■" ';  t'-  ^' «"-''  ->-  -  ^^  c.;::;  :i^ 

(X.  uune  all  drawuigs,  whether  complete  or  under  wav    nnd  fn 
.nake  note  of  details  of  every  kind.'exan.i.iing  c^.r^Lt  t   o 
oughly  :n  al    particulars  before  taking  up  another  one      Ea  h 
note  should  be  n.ade  on  a  separate  card  of  uniform  size  and  these 

nSi,f ;:!;::'  '^  "•■■''"^''^^  "-•-  •'■^-■-t  headings,  th: : 

r    at.ng  to  masonry,  carpentry,  painting,  etc.,  each  being  kept 
In  themselves.     The  cards  for  each  heading  mav  then  be  classl 
fled  n,  proper  order.     In  this  way  a  logical  arrangement  is  o.^y 
obta„,ed.     Before  writing  the  specifications  of  anv  panfc^  it 
-I.ject,  su,  .  as  carpentry  work,  this  branch  should  be'  evet 

U.deu.  \\  ords  known  as  localisms  should  be  avoided  which 
arc  used  and  c.|early  understood  only  in  certain  districts 'a'd  I 
oca    resuients,  for  elsewhere  the  meaning  n.ay  not  be  kno  vn"^ 

nnd  deHi'r''"s  '"'■"■.'•^'"^■"^"'-'^  --»  -veml.  special  features 
and  details  should  be  exphuned  and  particularlv  those  which 
aro  not  easdy  shown  on  the  plans.  Unceaain' featu  es^m  J 
-.no.nnes  be  covere.l  by  "blanket  clauses"  or  comprehen"  ^e 

on  the  di ;;\ving5  be  repeated  in  the  specifications. 


psass'sw^^K!^ ," 


CHAPTER  VI 
SELECTION  OF  BUILDING  TYPE 

The  priiiiiiry  object  of  factory  buildings  is  financial  profit, 
and  in  this  respect  they  differ  from  houses  or  nionumental 
structures,  which,  in  addition  to  utility,  are  for  comfort  and 
beauty.  Manufacturing  buildings  are  merely  supplementary 
to  their  contents  and  all  the  plans  should  be  developed  together, 
the  buildings  forming  a  convenient  enclosure  of  the  right  size 
and  form,  for  the  machinery  within.  Capital  is  more  easily 
secured  for  the  erection  of  buildings  of  regular  form  than  for  irreg- 
ular ones,  because  those  of  the  former  type  can  more  easily  bo 
adapted  to  other  purposes  if  vacated  by  the  original  industry. 

Kind  of  Building  Material.— The  usual  types  of  factory  build- 
ings are: 

1.  Complete  wooden  buildings. 

2.  Slow  l)iirning  or  mill  construction  framing  with  brick  walls. 

3.  Steel  frame  with  walls  of  brick  or  concrete. 

4.  Reinforced  concrete  frame  with  walls  of  brick  or  concrete. 
The  rule  is  to  select  that  type  in  which  work  can  l)e  done  with 

the  greatest  ease,  efficiency  and  security  at  the  least  ultimate 
cost,  when  interest,  insurance  and  depreciation  are  considered. 
The  extent  to  which  building  materials  will  affect  the  first  cost', 
depends  upon  their  selling  price  at  the  place  of  numufacturei 
with  transportation  charges  to  the  site  added,  and  the  facility 
for  receiving  and  hauling  them  when  they  arrive.  Preference 
will  often  l)e  given  for  that  material  which  is  near  at  hand  and 
therefore  more  quickly  obtained  at  a  l-.wer  cost.  In  those 
Pacific  states  where  good  timber  is  still  plentiful,  it  is  much  used 
in  preference  to  steel,  which  must  usually  be  brought  a  long 
distance— often  from  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  vicinity  of  rolling  mills  and  structural  works,  steel 
framing  nuiy  !)e  more  (luickly  made  than  timber  and  at  nearly 
the  same  cost. 

Wood,  metal  and  concrete  framing  each  have  their  special 
merits  which  are  mentioned  elsewhere.  Exposed  metal  framin.!? 
IS  not  suitable  for  buildmgs  where  gases  or  sulphuric  acid  fumes 

52 


SELECT  u).V  OF  PJIi  OING  TYPE  53 

aro  ponorated,  as  in  locoi^iot  -o  sheds,  ,.,is  houses,  or  shops  for 
making  storage  batteries,  for  the  -uetal  is  rapidly  corroded- by  the 
fumes.  Reinforced  concrete  conipai.  ,  favorably  in  cost  with 
timber,  for  buildings  of  several  stories  and  column  spacing  of 
IG  to  20  feet,  with  floor  loads  of  2.>0  lbs.  per  square  foot  or  more 
Hut  for  one  story  buildings  and  especially  those  with  long  spans 
n>inforced  co-  f„r  framing  cannot  compare  in  cost  with 

steel.     W  ood  iug  for  roofs  is  cheaper  in  first  cost  than  slaba 

of  iciiiforced  (  m.      ^o. 

Essentials  of  Good  Framing.— The  essential  qualities  of  good 
framing  are: 

1.  .Strength 

2.  Durability  or  endurance 
;}.  Utility 

4.  Simplicity  of  construction 

•').  Economy 

0.  Possibility  of  quick  and  easy  erection. 

The  columns,  walls  and  floors  must  evidently  be  strong  enough 
to  carry  their  loads,  and  requirements  of  the  near  future  should 
be  anticipated,  for  the  strengtiiening  of  buildings  is  difficult  and 
expensive. 

Durability  or  endurance  depends  much  on  the  absence  of  vibra- 
tion, the  injurious  effect  of  which  is  very  great.  The  building 
must  also  resist  the  attacks  of  weather  and  the  elements,  and 
Kliould  be  as  nearly  fireproof  as  possible. 

Utility  and  efficiency  are  .secured  by  goo.l  lighting,  heating  and 
ventilating,  together  with  cleanliness  and  sanitarv  conditions 

Simplicity,  quick  erection  and  economy  are  essentials,  factors 
of  economy  being  low  cost  of  construction,  maintenance  and 
operation. 

Vibration  and  OsciUation.- Vibration  is  a  local  shaking  of 
parts  under  loads  or  impact,  while  oscillation  is  the  .swpm-  i-  of  the 
building  as  a  whole,  resulting  from  the  movement  of  .-^,^0'  or 
machinery  acting  in  unison.  Both  of  these  cause  serious  aijury 
to  the  framing  with  frequent  breaking  of  skylights  and  windows 
Ihese  movements  also  cause  excessive  wear  on  machines  and 
nece.ssitate  a  greater  amount  of  power  to  run  them.  OsciUation 
often  occurs  in  steel  frame  buildings  of  several  stories  with  brick 
exterior  walls,  which  are  used  for  such  purposes  as  orinting  and 
iJiiiding,  a  notable  one  of  seven  stories  in  Chicago  having  a  move- 
ment at  the  top  of  several  inches,  even  though  the  five-story 


I':.\(;im:i:iu.\(;  of  shops  asd  factories 


buildinfi  ii(lj(>iniii>:  it  is  iii;uk>  <if  concrete.  Hrcent  inspection  of 
this  building  by  tiio  writer  siiowed  tliiit  sueli  excessive  oscillation 
had  a  serious  effect  on  the  occupants,  |)articidarly  on  occasioiud 
visitors  unaccustoineil  to  its  movement.  In  a  plant  valued  ai 
S1()(),00()  it  has  been  estinuited  that  the  cost  of  nuichinery  repairs 
from  vibration  alone  would  tiverajie  one  to  two  dollars  per  day. 

Depreciation.— Yen rly  depreciation  de])ends  upon  the  uhinuitc 
duration  of  a  buildinjr,  and  its  scrap  vii'.ue  at  the  conclusion  of 
that  period.  Slow  dei>reciation  usually  accompanies  hij>;h  fust 
cost,  and  rapid  deprociatiou  h)W  first  cost,  thoujih  there  arc  ex- 
ceptions to  the  rule.  Wooden  ])uildiii;is  of  slow  burning  con- 
struction luivc  a  yearly  tie])ieciation  of  1  to  It  per  cent,, 
while  those  of  reinforced  concrete  <io  not  exceed  \  of  1  percent. 

Insurance. — The  need  of  fireproof  constnution  is  evident,  when 
the  annual  fire  lo.ss  is  oasidered,  which  in  the  United  Statca 
alone,  exceeds  SJ.jO.OOOjUOO,  or  S2..")0each  year  for  every  person. 

Insurance  rates  vary  considerably  accordin^r  to  the  time  and 
place  and  to  the  availalile  water  su)>])ly  and  fire  protection. 
Approximate  annual  insurance  cluufrcs  on  buildiiijrs  of  ditTerent 
ty])cs  for  city  location,  but  without  sprinkler  systems,  are  jriven 
in  the  following  table.  The  figures  are  the  rates  of  in.surance  in 
cents  per  SI 00  of  value  for  both  building  and  contents. 

TAUI.r;  I.— AI'IMloXIMATi:  IXSUUAXCK  C'lIAUCKS 


Oenpral  storoliouso. 

Wool  warehouse 20 

Office 

Cotton  factory 

Tannery 

Shoe  factory     

Woolen  mill 

Machine  shop,    

Merchandise  builillng 

Paper  factory 12 

Average 


Wo 

)il   mill 

AN'ood   mill 

Concrete  l>ldg. 

coii.st 

p.,   brick 

con.sti 

.,   wood 

tiideti 

sides 

Bl()g. 

Contei'l« 

ni.ig. 

i 
Conteii's 

niig. 

Contents 

20 

,        »•"> 

GO 

1(K) 

100 

125 

20 

35 

40 

00 

75 

KM) 

15 

30 

35 

50 

100 

125 

40 

100 

100 

■:m 

2(M) 

300 

20 

40 

75 

too 

100 

100 

25 

SO 

7.5 

KM) 

1.^0 

200 

30 

SO 

75 

1(H) 

150 

200 

15 

25 

50 

50 

100 

100 

35 

75 

50 

100 

100 

1.50 

12 

29 
30-70 

21 
20-75 

05 

00-100 

10-40 

75-1,50 

1(H)- 200 

F^:if, 


j.^;^;-'"':s£f^^^»BwaMO 


SELECTION  OF  BUILDISG  TYPE 


55 


TABLK  It.-INSURANCE  CHAROKS  KKI'uUTKU  BY  ANOTIIIK  COMPANY 
AUi;  AS  FOI.I.<)\\.S: 


("oncrctc  l)I<Ig. 


OiiiklinK    Coiitoiits 


I'tiftornstoraRohldR.      25-50  4.">-65 

'■'"'»""lry UO-GS  05- UK) 

Macliine  Bhop 25-50  50-75 


Wootl  mill 

1 

coiislr.,  brick 

'  Brick  utid  stoc 

8idus 

coii.st  ruction 

Ruilding  and 

Hiiildiiig  and 

coiitonts 

contents 

85 

70 

135 

115 

100 

85 

liuildiiiRs  for  Mcrrit&Co.  of  Philadelphia  had,  in  1907,  insur- 
ance rates  per  SlOO  of  value  for  building  and  contents  of 

182  cents  per  $100,  for  reinforced  concrete  buildings 
.3.17  cents  per  SUM),  for  mill  construction  Iniildings' 
All  of  the  above  charges  are  for  buildings  without  automate 
si)nnkler  systems.  When  these  are  installed,  the  charges  are 
reduced  by  7,0  to  lo  per  cent.  Reports  publishetl  in  1908  show 
that  the  rate  of  insurance  on  l,uildiiigs  of  mill  construction 
remforced  concrete,  or  steel  frames  not  fireproofcd,  when  pro- 
vid.-d  with  automatic  sprinkler  systems,  is  20  to  35  cents  per 
•?  1 00  per  year. 


Fig.  20. 

Roof  Outline.— The  exterior  roof  outline  should  be  such  as  to 
shed  water,  and  if  necessary,  to  admit  .,t  and  air,  but  it  should 
also  be  of  pleasing  appearance.  These  results  are  obtained  in 
many  ways,  some  of  which  are,  by  double  pitch  roofs  with  center 
monitor  (Fig.  20).  transvense  monitors  on  flatter  pitches  (Fig 
21),  and  single  slopes  with  light  admitted  from  the  north  side 
only  (Fig.  22).     A  double  pitch  roof  with  a  center  monitor  is  an 


.'Hi 


K\(!ISl-:Klil.\G  OF  SHOPS  A.\n  FACTORIES 


excellent  outline  as  fur  as  wai.-r  she<l,li„;r.  ventilati.m,  and 
appearance  is  coiuerneil,  l)Ut  it  fails  in  a(lniiltin«  sulficient  li^ht 
Hindows  on  narrow  nionitoiH  throw  l)nt  little  li^r],t  to  the  floor' 
an.!  {;lass  skyli-hts  n.u.-t  usually  he  i)la(e.l  on  the  roof,  sky- 
lights are  often  nnih'sinihle  in  sinjjle  story  metal  working  shops, 


I'Ki.    21. 


I'lo.  22. 


Iio.  23. 


Ul 


Fi(i.  24. 


Fi(i.  -J.-,, 

as  they  are  frequently  l.roken  from  the  action  of  cranes  The 
insufficient  li«ht  from  windows  on  h.nptu.linal  monitors"is  due 
chiefly  o  the  narrow  monitor  widths  (Fig.  23),  which  rarely 
exceed  o  to  10  ft..  ..nd  for  thi.  n.uson  some  recent  shops  have 
roofs    with    moderately    fl..t    pitch,    and    transverse    monitors 


SKLECTIOX  OF  liCILPIM.   ni'E  57 

covorinK  the  wholo  width  (,f  altornato  panels,  their  sidos  iH-ing 
.■oyn-od  with  M,.,val,i..  Hash.  Who,.  ih.Ho  .ross  ,M,„ut.,r.s  i.u-h.se 
pairs  .,f  adjoining  trusses  (FIk.  24),  there  Ls  ee.,n..„,y  .,f  i,.,erior 
heatu.K  spaee  as  the  r..of  outli.,,-  lies  ji.st  above  the  h.wer  and 
upper  truss  eh..rd«  „n  which  the  j>urlins  are  su,.|mrted  A  c...,d 
example  of  this  type,  is  a  pattern  .shop  n-cerUly  ..re.te.l  for  the 
Marylan.1  Steel  Co.npany.  Inst.md  of  eoverin^  alternate  roof 
l>uy.s,  the  tran.sverso  monitors  may  be  i)laeed  at  l.-.s  frecpient  in- 
tervaLs  and  may  extend  either  part  way  or  entirely  across  the 
ro.)f.  Transverse  monitors  over  every  third  roof  panel,  tho 
.non.tor  s.des  being  covered  with  sla.ss,  ^mvc  good  li^diting  eff.-ct 
W  itli  panel  lengths  of  20  ft.  an<l  cross  nmnitors  over  everv  third 
pauel  the  cost  of  the  two  types  will  be  about  the  same  when  the 


Fio.  26.— Trusa  outline  for  effective  roof  lighfi 


longth  of  the  cross  monitor  is  GO  ft.  or  equal  to  three  panels 
Longitudinal  monitors  for  lighting  should  have  a  width  of  about 
one  quarter  of  the  span,  but  when  for  ventilation  ordy  a  less 
width  IS  preferable. 

Another  plan  is  to  use  flat  pitch  roofs  over  the  central  part  of 
the  building  with  end  posts  of  the  trusse.  near  the  walls,  inclined 
at  ang  es  of  about  45  degrees,  these  side  sloping  areas  being 
covered  with  glass  (Fig.  25).  This  position  and  inclination  of 
glass  18  excellent  for  adn  itting  light,  but  the  sloping  .sash  are 
liable  to  leak. 

As  warm  air,  ga.s  and  .smoke  nat-ially  rise  to  the  highest  level 
they  can  be  withdrawn  only  when  ventilators  arc  at  the  summit' 
and  roofs  with  double  pitch  descending  from  the  center  to  the 
Bide  must  therefore  have  the  monitor  at  the  ridge  But  as 
previously  stated,  this  form  admits  insufficient  light  through  the 
monitor  sides.     The  outline  may,  therefore,  be  reversed,  and  a 


^.'1.' 


.IS       /;.\Y,7.\TA7,7.\7/  or  SIIOI'S  .WD  fmuhueh 

loimilu.linal  gutter  placed  (.v<t  th.>  coiit*-!-  of  ilic  hiiil.linfj;  with  a 
<l«»iil.l('-|iit(li  roof  ascciidin),'  to  the  si<lc8  (Fig.  JD,  RiviriK  greater 
window  li«'i;;lit  for  li<;lit  and  vontilutioii.  Sasln  ,  ii  stand  vertical, 
ami  ••l)j(Ttionahlc.slnpiriK^kyli«litscan  lie  avoided.  Vcntiiatioti 
is  effectivo  without  any  fire  risk  when  the.Ho  fsash  are  made  of 
rolled  steel  and  operated  in  clusters  (Fig.  -JT).     This  type  of 


Drip  Hole 


-Clip  ami  AnK 
fumiaiiiiU  by 
Steel  ContracUir 


Furnishc-i  by  otheri 

/Storm  Panel 


Stationary 
End  Section  ^ma^^hi^B^Bmmm 


^L^3 


Furnished  by  other  Contractors 

Fi(i.  27. — Detail  of  .sasli  for  nertlicrn  li^Iit  r  .ofs. 

roof  fulfills  all  u.seful  purpose.^  but  is  lacking  in  esthetic  outline. 
North  light  roofs,  like  many  other  comparatiMlv  now  things, 
have  been  used  to  excess,  and  often  with  in.Mifricient  reason.' 
Their  chief  adva!ita£re  is  that  sunlight  is  not  adini;:.;!  and 
shauows  are  therefore  avoided.     They  have  the  objection  of 


sHi.Kcriox  (,r  ii(n.i>'\(;  typk 


50 


tuJ 


poon-r    Vfntilntic.ii.     >, 


li  three  longiliuliiial  |jii\  s— 1| 


1110    rcci'iit    metal 
!•'  central  one  for 


i'U!.   2S, 


?'■        1.— Shiil  with  .sing!,.  g!il)lo. 
the  m\o.  l.,vy.     ,,,.,  with  a  double-piltl.  roof  in  i\,^   ,„i,,,„, 
U.crc  IS  ]Utlo  or  no  diflorence  in  the  cost  bctw.en  vert.i.,d  < 


I'k;.  32.— HuildiiiR  with  double  galile. 
incline,!  surfa.vs  for  the  north  windows,  for  while  vertical  Tvccs 
guc  a  f,M-eater  tuea  to  be  covered,  the  cost  of  framing  j„:    pening 


h..  ii»'i, 


00 


KSaiSEERISa  OF  SHOPS  A\D  FACTORIES 


llic  windows  is  loss.     The  Rroator  cost  of  vortical  sides  is,  there- 
fore, (ifTsot  hy  tlio  loss  cost  of  windows  (Fifj.  28). 

North  roof  11^111  may  i)o  admitLoil  to  i)uiklinKs  with  widths  of 
(U)  ft.  or  less,  l.y  placing  a  sin;;lo  lon-^itudinal  monitor  over  the 
whole  lenstli  of  the  l.uiidini;,  with  jilass  oa  the  north  .side  (mly. 
This  monitor  may  take  the  form  of  a  saw-tooth  (Fig.  29),  or  may 


I'Ki.  3.1.— Market  building  around  uu  oj)fu  square. 

he  .symmotrical  with  vortieal  faoos  on  both  sides,  and  the  south 
fac(>  covered  with  sheathinfr  (Fi^r.  ;{()).  .^n  example  of  this  kind 
with  .saw-tooth  monitor  may  he  seen  in  the  new  two-story  con- 
crete shop  at  ('ornell  Univer.sity. 

^Hiiildin-s  may  have  either  one  ridRO  (Fip.  31),  or  two  (Fig. 
■i.l),  or  may  ix-  hiiilt  around  an  open  scpiare  (Fig.  .«),  a  form 
which  iscspeeiidly  suitable  for  market  buildin<;s  where  an'  abund- 
anc-  of  fresh  air  is  iieeiled. 


CHAPTER  Vir 
WOOD  AND  METAL  FRAMING 

Timber  as  a  structural  material,  has  lately  roocivo.l  wholo- 
.alo  c...ulemnati..n  l.y  tlmsc  who  arc  cmmorciallv  intorost.-d  in 
rc-mforcod   concrete,  but  the  rc.tl  eaus,.  for  a  ,l(>.T,vusing  use  of 


'^'^^^^^^^^^^^^k^&r. 


Bnd  Pott  And  Bottom  Chord  Connoction. 


'W^ 


.■z^..,^m 


Noil«i9  of  bottom  Chord 
Dewilk  in  Top  and  Bottom  Chords. 


I      C'-'f'*  r»wwv  S'„d^^  ^Ct  IPC  \ 


r' 


Hoff  Tro,»^  S«rt««  E.^«n  -^  Ei,«tbn,f  a,  ? 

Fjc.  34.--Timl)or  framing  for  aiKliforiuin  at  Seattle. 


61 


iV2     j:.\(,i.\j:i:i{!X(;  of  shoi's  axd  factories 

tiiiihor  is  not  its  lack  of  nuiii,  l.iit  latlior  tlio  difliculty  of  socui^ 
iii^  it  ill  workiiiji  icii'itlis  iiiul  at  a  ivasoiiahii- cost.  Xolwitii- 
staiuliiiK  tlio  increased  use  of  steel  a. id  reinforced  concrete,  tiie 
continued  importance  of  tinil.er  in  const  met 'on  is  siiown  hv  a 
recent  rei)ort.  .f  the  rnitetl  States  (ieojojiicai  Survey,  covering 
forty-nine  American  cities.     Trum  tlii.s  report  it  appears  tluit  tim- 


Fi.;.  3.-,. 

ber  still  constitutes  (il  per  cent.  ..f  all  structural  material  with 
only  ;j!t  p-r  c.ni.  of  ,,tlier  inaK  rials.  In  llie  .\ew  Knjrland  States 
more  mill.-,  ar.'f  rained  of  \\,H,d  than  of  allot  her  nialerialscoml.ined. 
Tiinlier  has  a  low  tir.-l  cost  is  easily  fram.Ml,  and  is  often  pre- 
ferre.l  especially  in  ili..  S,.uih  :,.i.l  West  where  il  is  still  plentiful. 
The  ohjection  to  timi.er  is  its  fire  risk  and  corresponding^  insur- 
ance charges.      Its  j;vneral  u.se  on  the  Tacihc  coast  is  shown  l,y 


i^W  '   >*-3"rii-x»J'.-'^  .^i^i*ri«-»--J:V«-sA»7*-*Ai.'4^v  ^ 


m)01)  AM)  MET^i^  FlLUflXG  63 

tULSMs  1<()  ft  1,,,,.^  Uk.  au.litoriu.n  at  Wnico,  California  ..n.l  u 
hr...  one  at  Soatth-  wi.i.  a  span  of  90  ft.  (Fi,;34)  The  ', -^i  / 
San  FnuH.,sco  Jn.s  in-nts  :>(,  ft.  apart,  with  t  ro.  f  pi  h  7l  In 
.  :,  and  l,oltonu-honl.s  in  the  ...nu-nt  of  a  cirde.  'wses  .  « 
of  Oregon  pn.e  planks,  an.l  the  total  roof  weight  Z  u£t 
t._nss..  purhns  an.l  eorn.,ate.l  iron  is  10  11,.  per  lu  .  ^f 
lM,s.  3o_an.   :m  show  other  detail,  of  tinU.er  fraLin.  '  " 

Kvon  ,„  the  Kast  an.l  Mi,I,|le  States,  timberis  still  often  favored 
us  cvuieneed  by  the  erection  in  1907,  of  a  roof  over  the      .-s  u^ 


*'9-   -t  -      re- 


sk.itn..  n„i,  at  Cleveland,  with  wooden  arH.  trusses  of  100-ft 
■"Pan^  \M.en  provided  with  auton.ati,.  sprinklers  eut  off  d  ' 
j-    fire  ext,n«nishers.  slow  burning  consiruetion  with  hi::  t; 

'"tn  "f'r     ""\«'-'-'"'':"^-  -  -"-'--1  a  good  fire  r^Z 
tli(>  action  of  fire  on  large  tind)ers  is  slow 

Tnisses  ,ro  easily  fran.ed  by  making  .d.ords  of  several  lavers 
•;f  plank   sp,ked    together,   with   main   web  diagonals     f  ^>  ^ 
'nnber,  an.l  ..ounters  of  double  2  to  .3-in.  nlank.s  h.sert  .1    or 
-  <o  of  better  jou.ts.  between  the  layers  of  plank  in  the  ehor 

u>.n,„K.ro^ 

joints,  n.a\  be  computed  irom  the  following  cable: 


• 


61     j':.\(;i\i:KiiL\G  of  shops  asd  factories 

TAHI.i;  III  -SIIEAKINii   VAIXK  IN  I.HS.  OF  NAII.KO  JOINTS 

Hcsistance  at 


;  Ultiinalt 


yield  point 


.'<!»  (1  wire  ii.i:i 

40  (I  wire  null 

•">•  (1  wire  null 

6  1  (1  wiru  null 

7  in.  wire  niiil.  KuiiKe  '• 
N  ill.  wire  nail,  Kiim;c  (M( 


460 

230 

For  working  nnit 

■m 

280 

1     use  half  of   this 

i,.i() 

32.'. 

last    column,    or 

7.50 

375 

u  <|uartcr  of  the 

1070 

■)3.> 

ultimate. 

12'.M) 

fri:. 

1 

C'dlumns  .sliouKl  lu'  of  ■iixul  straight  timlxr  without  knots,  the 
l)Ost  kind  bcin;:  Si)iitli(>rii  pine.     They  should  be  bored  through 


l''ir..  'Mo. — Details  of  tinilicr  framing. 

the  ceiit.T  with  a  1  Uiii.  hole  and  should  remain  unpainfcd  for 
uixmt  two  j-ear.s.     ("ohiiun.s  .supportinj:  floors  must  usually  be 


li(i.  Mh. — Iron  caps  anil  ha.-sc  for  wooden  eohimns. 

spared  not  nioro  thiin  IJ  to  10  ft.  apart,  owinj;  to  tiie  inrreasinR 
difficulty  in  K<'ttin«  jircater  lengths.  Timlx-r  columns  were 
often  desiiined  with  excessive  strenjrth  and  dimensions,  but  tliey 
should  now  be  proporticmed  by  Profe.ssor  Lanza's  formuhe  or 
some  other  one  e()ually  reliui)le. 


^.P-':5'^-j!Mi^''?0iM^-J^i^^^  ~?^^^r- 


WOOD  AND  METAL  FRAMING 


65 


.37^nd3r'  "'"""  "'  '"''"  -""-■'•-«  are  .shown  in  Figs. 
Floor  timhers   Learing  on  walls  .should  be  anchored  thereto 

attP    .  r  ^"''"""'^  ""^'"^'^'^  ^^''t'^  ^^•'^^J'«'^>  because  the 

.>n.l«eand,>i.ed.o.et.K.^,J;^.^-j::>.,:'-::-^'^^ 
of  1-in.  flooring.     (.Sec  Wood  Floors).  ^ 


Fk;.  38. — Hroni  hang<'rs 


Xim^lHT  of  ht.. 


•*,  A,  or  5  Htofjt^. 
2  story 

1  ufor,- 


f'ost  in  cents 

Ii^T  Riiuarc  foot  of 

fioor  aron 


fost  in  conts 

per  cubic  foot  of 

contents 


S.5  to  B.l 
(Ml  to  UK) 
5*.">  (o  10.5 


6.5  to  7  ,5 
".n  to  8.0 
7  5  to  8.5 


^      -rea.^  lH..  coM  oy  1  to  2  cents  per  cubic  foot  in  each 


A 


GG 


i:\(;i.\i:i:ii!.\(;  of  shops  and  factories 


ciiso.  In  country  districts  where  labor  is  cheap,  the  cost  may  be 
l.j  to  1>()  per  cent,  less,  and  in  tlie  South,  where  both  labor  and 
materials  are  M  to  .-)()  per  cent,  less  than  in  the  North,  the  cost 
will  bo  reduced  accordingly.  Hiiildings  which  cost  8i  ecnta 
per  cubic  foot  in  large  cities,  have  been  reproduced  in  small 

towns  for  about  6  cents 
per  cubic  foot.  Under 
the  most  favorable  con- 
ditions, wood  factory 
buildings  in  the  South, 
not  including  the  items 
mentioned  above,  will 
cost  as  low  as  4\  to  5 
cents  per  cubic  foot.  In 
Georgia    and     Carolina, 


• 100* J 

!>      ll    \    1'. 

li'ii'v.r 

--  —  .--- --    -     - - 

--». 


□  □DDDDDDDn 

D  D  D"n"D""n"D"[]'n'D 

□  ODD  D^D  D"n¥D 
D  D  U  D  D  D  ¥ D'dJd 

D  D  □  D  n'n^'n 'd"d  d' 


D J  D  D  DD  D  D  D  D 


D  D 


D  D 


an 


D  D 


D  da  D 


D  m  Df 


□  m  D 


□  mn  D 


j~ 


Fif!.  30.— Sovon  story  f.irtorj'  at  rinoinnati,  Ohio. 

two-story  cotton  iiiiils  liavc  occasionally  been  erected  at  prices 
of  4")  to  00  ccMits  per  sciiiare  foot  of  floor  area.  The  building 
rusts  given  abov(>  for  nort  licni  latitudes  are  quite  low,  and  wooden 
buildings  of  mill  (oust  ruction  with  lloorloads  of  200  lb.  per  square 
foot,  have  soihctiincs  cost  from  Sl.-lO  to  iJl.dO  per  square  foot. 

A  slow  buriiin-  wood  nii'i  hniMing  (Fig.  3!i)  designed  in  lOOo 
by  the  writer,  with  a  basement  and  seven  stories,  and  a  total 
flour  area  ,4  .-^.700  sq.  ft.,  cost  for  the  structure  oniv,  with 
foundations.  «.„„>  and  framing,  but  without  ecpiipment,  90 
cents  per  squa-*'  fo.-t  of  floor  area,  and  7.7  cents  per  cubic  foot 


^y'>OJ)  AM)  METAL  FHAMISG  67 

of  ';""t,.n,s      It  was  pr„porti„no.|  for  .■.  live  l,.,ui  of  200  Ih   p.,- 

KM)  ft    lo„.    for  a  floor  load  of  only  IW  li.„  est  8:^  v.uU  u.r 
■s-iuaro  foot   or  (,. j  ,,,nts  per  cul.i,.  foot,  tho  .ost  of  ,he  floors  L\ 
coh„„ns  only,   l.,n«  27   ..n.s  p,.  ..,„,,■  foot   .,f  floor  an 
_    A  tal.l,.  pv.n^r  ,i„.  ,„,,  „f  ^^  ,„iscellan.-o„s  lot  <.f  woo.l  l.uiM- 
n.,s,  n,>nul„.....l  f,..„„   a  r.port  of  th.  National  Associat  f 

C cnient  I  sers  for  ]!)()!),  is  as  follows: 

TAB..,.:  ^v.-C(>siM,K^Hri.nixo8  OP  woor,  vn.r 


'      Tost                ^'"'-         I'l.x.r  Mr..,,         I"'' i'«t 
oil.  It.              si|.    It. 
<'U.  ft,  .Ni|.  ft. 

\\  ar..  u.„...,  Ji.,s.„„             ;   .-{.-ctHK,        i.„S0H,.S.-,(,  .7  '    "' 

J'"-  "•"'"",. ;   H:U88        I,271.a.M)      l-.,.20  , L,  >.-. 

Mill    I.-.  ,1           .                      i<M,u,»^        I,,l},4,>0      KW.WHi  05(1  ,.,v 

Mill,  FifhlmrK 7204s       1   rn '.,".,  "•'**  *'" 

Mill,ront,.rvill.....               jo- '  !  '       l!:''^       *^'-'«»  «■«'<  10.^ 

Mill, Pawtuok..t r,:  H    ,:!;■'.      '•^"•'"  o^,-,  ,.,, 

Mill,  l.i„.l,|.„rK                      l-.,",l        -■';'•-'•:""      '"'"'•"  ■"•»''  542 

Av.Tap  ;.;,st •"*  -'•"■•'"*'  '•■■•'•«'  O^-'  W 

.()0!»  .(M> 

0,1  ,  „,„!  hy  i),o  simpl.nty  of  tlic  (luniinc     It  h  ii,i,.,l]„ 

-,..«,.,   ,.„.  ,.,.Iiv,.,.o„  pH„  ,.,-„g  „  , „UZ  ,  , , 

•       ;"  ''.''"'"'  "■'"'  '"■'■''"  '■''"««  •■«i*'.i. 

1^  .^  V  .    1 .   .Mai.i  ot  Jioston,  are  as  follows: 

H.  G.  Tyrrell,  ii,  Carpu.lry  and  Building,  Nov.,  1905. 


G8 


t:.\aiM:hia\(;  of  shops  .wd  hwctuihes 


50     WO    150     TOO    250   300    350   4*0  W   MO 
Length  in  ft . 

Fi,i.  40 —Cost  (liuKram  f..r  l.rick  mill  l)iiil<lings,  one-story. 


0       50     IM     I'O    200    J5C    300     ^K)    400  460    500 
Le'  9t:)  n  ft. 

Fiu.    11.— Cost  (iiagrai,,  for  hricK  t.  :!.  '  uiidiiij?^.    w<,.8tory. 


^^"^ 


WOOD  AM)  mi:t.\l  framing 


69 


50     100    ISO    200   150   300    JM  400   4w"  100 
Length  in  fr. 


Fin.  4-2.  -Cost  .liagrani  for  brick  mill  building' 


iO      .00     ,w    ,00    250    300    3M    400    WW 
Length  in  ft 

Fir,.  43.-(ost  diagruw  for  brick  mill  buiUlinps,  fol,^-^^.,ry. 


70     /.  ''•i.\f-:Hi{rM;  or  snors  .wn  fmtoiueh 


*      100     f60     JOO    250   300    350   400    4W    SOO 
Length  in  ft. 

Fio.    n.— r„si  ,|iai;ran.  I,.r  lirick  mill  l.iiildiiiRs,  liv.-storv-. 


Tin.   \: . 


50      100      150     iJO    ^50     JOG     JjO    4«0    440     500 
Length  in  ft 

-'  <.st  diuRium  for  brick  i.,ill  l.uildiugs,  six-story. 


noOD  AM)  METAL  FHAMIMJ  71 

MeUl  Framing.— Stcrl  fraininj;  can  be  clofinitely  proportioned 
for  t'ithor  .sliort  or  long  Hpan.s,  uilli  connectioiw  of  any  tleHired 
Ktron^ith,  an<l  it  can  he  quickly  erected.  It  is  not  fireproof  and 
deteriorates  rapidly  from  rust  when  not  painted  or  not  otherwise 
protected.  It  lias  been  conclusively  i)roven  by  great  conflagra- 
tions such  as  those  at  San  Francisco  and  Baltimore,  that  steel 
is  not  firepro«.f  or  permanent  even  when  enclosed,  for  the  covering 
will  l)reiik  off,  leaving  the  metal  exposed.  At  a  temperature  of 
1(MK)°  F.,  Hteel  framing  will  collapse  under  load,  resulting  in 
complete  ruin.  A  casing  or  enclosure  of  1/2  to  2  in.  of  rein- 
forced concrete  gives  partial  protection,  but  Ls  of  little  use  when 
fire  has  gained  much  headway.  Fireproofing  with  terra  cotta 
blocks  is  of  still  smaller  value,  as  the  blocks  are  brittle  and  will 
shake  to  pieces.  .Steel  framing  is  not  considered  even  as  choice 
a  fire  risk  as  heavy  timbers,  and  it  costs  including  maintenance, 
much  more  than  either  timber  or  reinforced  concrete. 

Cast  iron  columns  are  often  preferable  to  steel,  for  they  oc- 
cupy smaller  space  and  have  a  better  appearance,  but  they  fail 
quickly  in  fire  when  cooled  with  a  jet  of  water,  though  not  so 
quickly  as  steel.  Unless  the  ca.sting  process  is  c.nefully  done, 
the  core  is  liable  to  float,  making  the  metal  thinner  on  one  side  of 
the  columns  than  on  the  other,  and  in  this  condition  they  may  be 
unsafe  and  liul)le  to  fail  under  hiieral  blows  or  pre.ssure.  De- 
fect's of  this  kind  can  be  detected  only  by  measuring  the  thickness 
with  a  long  arm  calipers,  but  danger  can  be  avoided  by  using 

columns   of    wrought-iron   pipe,    the 

strength  of  which  can  be  increased 
by  filling  them  with  fine  concrete. 
Ilolled  steel  columns  of  Bethelehem 
shape  (Fig.  4G),  save  the  expense  of 
punching  and  riveting,  and  connec- 
tions to  them  are  easily  made,  but 
this  saving  is  somewhat  offset  by 
tlieir  greater  pound  price. 

Metal  frames  are  preserved  in 
several  ways,  some  of  which  are: 
(1)  painting,  (2)  IJower-Barff  oxida- 
tion, (.3)  zinc  or  lead  coating,  and  (4)  enameling.  In  the 
Bower-Barff  process,  superheated  steam  is  passed  over  metal 
whil(<  it  is  red  hot,  when  oxygen  combines  with  the  metal, 
forming  an  oxide  coating  which  prevents  any  further  oxidation.' 


Vus.  46. 


'mmmmmmmm 


ri     'I-  i:  IJUyr 


^mr^^ 


MICROCOPY   RESOIUTION   TEST   CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No   2) 


1.0 


I.I 


1.25 


1 3.6 

140 


1^ 

2.2 

lie 

1.8 
1.6 


M  APPLIED  \KMEiE     Inc 

SSTm  '-'"-•'    East    MoiH    Streei 

S'-S  W'l.-^estef.    Ne*    Vork         '-.609        u5A 

'■^=  .;M6)    48;  -  O.iOO  -  Ph   ne 

ass  (^16}   288  -  5989  -  fo« 


72       EXaiNEI^RIXG  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTOIilES 


Fio.  •17.— Machine  shop  at  I.ynn,  Ma.ss. 


Flc.  4.S.— SpiniiiriK  mill  ut  New  liodfonj,  Mass. 


M^ 


W^fi^fWT'^^jr. 


^^^k  A^l  ^'A^V*  WKk^  ' 


a 


,# 

%. 


WOOD  AND  METAL  FRAMING  73 

A  thrce-Rtory  shop  with  motal  framing  and  steel  cohimns  is 
shown  m  FiK.  47,  and  a  four-story  sliop  of  unusual  width  in 
I'  Iff.  48.  Fis.  49  IS  a  typical  floor  phm  of  tlie  ten-story  Everard 
wareliouse  at  10th  and  Washington  streets,  New  York,  plans  for 


ii._. 


Fio.  49.— Typical  floor  plan,  Everard  warohou.so,  \ew  York  City. 

Which  were  made  by  the  writer  in  189G,  and  the  accompanying 

ub  e  gives  a  schedule  of  the  columns.     In  order  to  add  stiffness 

to  tJie  frame,  the  column  sections  generally  extend  through  at 

lea^t  two  stories,  and  column  splices  are  staggered,  some  splices 


•^imma^mmmm 


74       ENGINEERING  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTOllIES 


NoTE^T'.n  nilumn  .sjliedule  (tivcn  ticrpwith  is  murh  more  IptiKthy  than  wa.H  iritonilwi  by 
the  author  hut  it  may  bo  valuable  to  students  and  others  not  regularly  engaged  in  dcsigu- 
ing  building  frames,  and  especially  so  as  such  data  is  not  generally  found  in  other  books. 

SCHEDULE  OF  COLUMNS 


Height 
Fluor       between  Col.  No.  1  Col.  No  :>  Col.  No.  3  Col.  No.  4 

Hoor.H 


Twelfth 

■lIj>.2ix2Xi" 
I  PI.  8  X  i" 

1 

Eleventh.      10'  .)" 

4Zs.  3XJ" 
1  PI.  6XJ" 

i 

' 

Tenth  .  . .      10'  ;t" 

! 

Ninth..  .        Id'  .)" 

■«  Zs.  r,xi" 

Eighth.         10' ,1" 

J 

.Seventh..      10'  .t" 

4  ^s.  6XJ" 
1  PI.  8  \  i" 

6 

aa  Col.  No.  1. 

i 

o.  I. 

Sixth.  ,          10'  .'!" 

1 

as  Col.  I 

s 

Fifth...      lo';*"    1 

1 

4Z».  6X11" 

r. 

Same 

V 

E 

'Si 

Fourth.         10'  :t" 


1  PI.  SXli" 


Third....      10' :i"     1 


.Si'cond..        10'  3" 


4  Zs.  6XJ" 


1  PI.  8Xi" 


2  Vh     1  »  X  j" 

l-i'st ll>'0"  4Zs.  fiXJ" 

1  PI.  8  X  I" 


1  PI.  8X1" 
(eilar.  \>'  6"  2  Pis    UVJ" 

4  /,-.  6  V  j" 


■iK^p?^ 


WOOD  AND  METAL  FRAMING 


75 


SCHEDULE  OF  COLVMUS— Continued 


Height 
Floor       l?3tweeii         Col.  No.  5 
floors 


Col.  No.  6  Col.  No.  7  Col.  No.  8 


Twelfth. 


I 


4Ij<.  21X2XJ" 


Eleventh:     10'  3" 


1  I'l.  6  X  J" 


Tenth...  .j    10'  3"    i 


Ninth..  10'  3" 


Eighth. .  .      10'  3" 


Seventh.       10'  3" 


Sixth. 


10'  3" 


Fifth I    ID'S"    i 


Fourth.  .1    10'  3" 


Third. ...'    10'  3" 


Second.. . 


10'  3" 


First. 


Cellar. . . 


12'  0" 


12'  6" 


— ?:- 

o 


s 


4  Zs.  4X1" 


1  1*1.  6JXJ" 


4  Zs 


ipi.  aix,i^« 


J 


4  Za.  5X»" 


1  PI.  7  X  i" 


4Ij!.  2iX2Xj" 

1  PI.  ex  J" 


4  Za.  3  X  I" 


1  PI.  6  X  i" 

4  Z*.  4  X 1" 

1  PI.  6JXi" 

6 
-5^ 


S 
a 
■J. 


4  Zs.  ex,'.," 

1  PI.  8X,'." 


4  Za.  exi" 

1  PI.  8X1" 


4  Z.S.  6XU" 
1  PI.  8X1|~ 


4Z»exir 

1     IPl.  8XH" 
2  Pis.  14X1" 


4  Zs.  6XU'' 
1  PI.  SXil" 
2P1  14X,V 


70       EXaiXKI'JlilXc;  of  shops  AXD  FACTOIUES 


SCIIKUfl.I-;  OK  foI.UM.V.S     C„n/,n«,,/ 
<'"1   -N'l'    111  Col    X...  11 

'"'■"'h-; 1  Fjf.  2JX1'  "  i"     I  I.»  L'i  vy  1" 

ii'i.  oix;"        u'laxj" 


Hii.)r       liiMwciMi  <',,!.  .Nil.  !l 


('.,1.  N.).  12 


i:i>-viMiiii     10' ,{■' 


'I'l-rilh.    .        10'  :) 


4  Zh.   IX  J"         I     1  Z«.  .txl" 


1  ri.  fixi" 


'   1  I'l.  OJXJ" 

] 


VirKh..  10' .t"      j 

I    JZa.  flXJ"        I   IZs.  r.x,».," 


ScviMiih.       10' .1" 


f^it'h  lO'.i" 


Kiflh 10':(" 


KcHirili.  10' ;i' 


Zs.  fl  X  ,■•„"        I   I  Z«.  6  X  ,'„" 

> 


1  i'l.  SX,i" 


1  i'l.  sx.^," 


j  1  Zs.^oxu"      I    1  Z».  flxi" 

I  1  i'l.  sxir'     I  1  I'l.  s^<r'' 

J  J 


y. 

i!      ' 

I 

3 

3 

3 

3j 

■5 

X 

ThinI   .  10'  .t" 

I  I 

_^_ !     '  Zs.  6X  j"        I    I  Z».  6X13" 

sec„n.i..     10' a"    I  "''•■«^5'^;ii'i:¥^r 

I  j 

1'  I'ls.  14X,"„" 


...  -'  I'N    IlXi'' 

l'"'-''!  ll"ll"         1  i'l.  8xi" 


CVlliir. 


1Z.S.  6Xi"  IZ.-.  6XJ" 


IPI.  SXJ''  1  I'l  .Sxl" 

IZ.t8Xi  -'I'N.  MX, V 


WOOD  AM)  METAL  FRAMING 


77 


SCHEDUI.i;  OF  Cni.VMS>^-Conli-jed 


'■  Heifht  ' 
Floor       hjj'we..,.         O,].  No.  1.1  r„l.  \„.  u  (•„!.  s„.  ir,  Co..  v„.  jg 


Twflfih. 


■II*.  2}X2Xi"     I  I>i.  24  Xl'xl" 


Kli'vnlh:      10'  .)" 


1  I'i.  6xi" 


Tenth....!    10' 3" 


Ninth !    10' 3"      I 

!  J 


4  Zs.  .'txj'' 
1  I'I.  OX  I" 


4  Z....  4XJ"         14  Z.H.  ix,»," 
1  I'I.  61  X  J"      lll'l.  6JxV^ 


Kighth. .  .     10'  3" 


Seventh. .      IC  3" 


1  PI.  -XJ"       I    1  I'l.  8^,',' 


4  Z,    4X,"," 
1  I'l.  6iX,»/' 


4  Zs.  6XJ" 


Sixth. ...     10'  3"      1 


Fifth 10' 3"      ! 


4  Z«.  .'JXi" 
1  VI  7Xr 


1  I'l.  SXJ"  1  PI.  8X1J 


:  Zfl.  6X|S" 


Fourth...      10' 3" 


Third. ...      10'  3" 


I  4  Zs.  6  X  u" 


4  Zs.  OX]r        I    4  Zs.  6Xi' 


1  PI.  SXIi"     I    I  PI.  8Xi" 


J 


Second.,  .      10'  3" 


First :    12' 0" 


Cellar. 


1  PI.  8X,'." 


4  Z.S.  6X,»„" 
1  PI.  8  X  ,"." 


1  2  Pis.  14  X,'.' 

)  PI.  NXJ" 

IZs.  exu"  4Zs.  6XJ" 


X  PI.  8  X 13" 


1  ri.  8XJ" 

2Pl8.  14  XL'S," 
4  Z.H.  6  X  J" 


)  2  Pis    16  X  J" 

1  I'l.  10X1" 

IZs.  Oxi"       I      4Z8.  6XJ" 


1-   <>  1  II.  8X|i  I  2  Pis.  16X1" 

J       21'ls.  14Xi"  I       4Zs.  OxJ" 


78       llSdlSKEHISC  OF  S HOI'S  AND  FA(  TORIES 


tiCUF.nVl.i:  OF  COI.lTM.Ns     Cnntinued 


rio„i 


Hi'lEht 


I..Mw.^jn         C.l.  \„    17  ,„|.  v,,  ,,s  (.,,1.  j<„,  ,,,  j,,,,^  j.^^  ,,j 


Twelfth 


Klcvenlh:     10'  ,t" 


Ton  111. 


1  I'l.  -,<,';," 


4  Zx.  5  X  ,"," 


ii,i..2jxjxr 

1  I'l.  6X1"^ 


I  J'l.  7XA" 


Ninth.. 


10'  :i" 


lUghth.         10' .T' 


Spvfnth.        10'  :i" 


4  -.     6XJ" 
1  PI.  8XJ" 


Sixth  10'  :j" 


I    4Zs.  6X}" 
1  PI.  8XJ" 


4  Z».  .IX  J" 
1  PI.  bXl" 


4  Z.'i.  .3XJ' 
1  I'l.  6XJ" 


J'ifth 10' 3" 


Fimrth.         lo'  ;)" 


4  Zs.  4X,«." 
1  "1.  6J  X  ,'i" 


I    4  Zs.  6Xi" 

f   1  I'l.  sx»'' 
I  i;  I'ls.  I4x:j'- 


J 


Third...        lo' .(" 


.Scconil..        10'  .i" 


First 


(Vlhir. 


l;."  0" 


IJ'  fi" 


2P1.S.  14X,','  ' 
1  I'l.  8  X  i"  j 
4Za.  6Xi" 


1  .-. 


1  PI.  8XJ" 

'Pla.  14  X!"      i 
4  Z».  6Xi"      14  z,,.  r,x,». 


2  1'N.ISXJ''      I 
I  PI.  12X1" 
IZs.  6Xi" 


1  I  I.  7  X  ,"," 


1  PI 

!     2  Pi... 
ij     4Zs 

12  XI" 

1,SX}" 

exi" 

4  Zs.  .5X1' 

1  PI.  Ty-y 


WOOD  AND  METAL  FRAMING 


7» 


SCHEDULE  OF  COLUMNS— Con/inwd 


Hright  i 
Floor       Iwtween  |      Coi.  No.  21 
Soon 


Twelfth. 


Col.  No.  22      I       Col.  No.  23 

4  1^.  2JX2XI"!  4  L«.  2JX2XI"' 
I       lPL6Xi"  1P1.SJXA''     i 


Col.  No.  24 


Eleventh      10' 3"    '     4Zii.  3xt' 
I      1P1.6X." 


Tenth....,    10' 3" 


Ninth., 


10'  3" 


4  Z«.  5  X  i" 


4  Z».  4X,"." 


1  PI.  aj  X  ,"/' 


1  PI.  7X1" 


Eighth. J    10' 3" 


4Za.  6XJ" 


Seventh. . !    10*  3" 


4Z«.  5XJ" 


1  PI.  7  X  i" 


)  PI.  8XJ" 


4Zs.  flxl" 


Sixth. 


10'  3" 


4Z».  6X11" 


1  PI.  8X1" 


Fifth 

10'  3"  ; 

! 
I 

1  PI.  8X1J" 

Fourth. .  . 

10'  3" 

4Zs.  8Xi" 

Third... 

10"  3"    ■ 

IPl.  8Xi"        1 

1 

4Zs.  6X|r' 


)  PI.  8XU" 


2Pl8.  14XA'  i 
1  PI.  8X1"  I 
4Z8 


l8.  14  X  A" 
PI.  8xi" 
Zs.  6Xi" 


Second...)  10' 3"  i  2Pls.  HX|"  i  ^^'•'*^'" 
1  PI  8X|r  2Pl8.  14X,V' 
4Z3.  6XU"   :      4Zs.  6X3" 


First.. 


12'  0" 


Cellar. 


12'  6" 


IPl.  8XIil"   I 

2  Pis.  14  xr." 

2Pl8.  HX,'."    !       IPl.  8X|r 

4  Z».  6Xir   '      4Za.  exiij" 


2PI»14XU"  IPl.  8  X  IS" 

4Z.J.  6XU"         2  Pis.  14  X}" 
IPl.  8X1!"      :      4Zs.6X|r 


a 


3 


s 

a: 


M)     K.\(;i.\hhiii\(;  OF  snoi's  axd  factories 


srirr;r)irr.K  up  roLtruvs  -r,miin„e.i 


lleJKht 
Fl....r       U.|«,...„         C.l    No.  z:  C,,!.  \„,  -.(  c,,!.  X,..  ;;7  C.I.  N„,  I'H 


Tw.lfdi 


Kli'v.iiih       10'  .1" 


Tcrilli,.  10' ;t" 


Vinlh..  10' It" 


Kiuhlh.  ID'  a" 


ScviMilh.        10'  ,i" 


Sixth. .  10'  .i" 


0 


Fifth 10'.!" 


i 


FiMlrlh. .  ,      10' 


ThinI 


10'  :)" 


s >ihI..       10'  :i" 


First. 


L'Pk  2»X,'. 

2  I'l.i.  26  X 
1  Ij..  6X4X 

2  I'l«,  i:)  X 


2  I'N.  24  X  J" 
2  rix.  2fl  X I 
t  Ij<  8X4) 


2IMh.  i.txi" 

2  1'I»,  24  X,-/' 

12'  0" 

2  1'1.-,  2fiX    " 
4  Ks.  H  X  1  X    " 

2  FN.  i:tx    " 

2PN.  24X1"     1 

12'  ti" 

2I'I».  JfiXl" 

4  l,s.  6X4  X  J" 

J 

2I'l  .  lliXi" 

'm^s^ 


WOOD  AND  METAL  FRAMING 


81 


SrUKDULE  OF  COI.mfV,S-r„n/.nu„i 


Ilright  i 

lHjtwe«„        Cul.  .V„.28  Col.  .N,,.30 


Tol.  No  .11  c„l.  N„.  32 


■^"""•h-i    UJ..2J  ...yj"    4  r^  ^, 


I       JPI.rt.,1"  IPl.BJxr' 


Klcvfiilh  1    10'  3" 

f  pT  «  ■    "            IZ-.  IXJ" 
ll'l.  6  X    "            1  I'l.  ,lJv;V' 

! 

Tenth....      ID'S" 

4  Zn.  8  X  1" 

1 

1  Zs.  a  X ,'." 

IPI.  8X,V' 

1 
1 

Ninth.. .       10'  3" 

1  PI.  8 XT' 

1 

Eighth.         10' 3" 

1 

1                             ' 
1 

NZ.,.6XJ"             4Z,.6X!" 

IPl.  8xi" 
J 

.— . 

Spvcnth..|    10' 3" 

1P1.8X}" 

° 

n 

Sixth 10*  3" 

i 

1 

4Z».  6XJ" 

1 
i 

J 

4Z«.  6X1" 

i 

Fifth 10' 3" 

1  PI.  8XJ" 

lP1.8Xi" 
2PL,.  nx,«." 

1 

<b 

Fourth...     ICS" 

2  PR  MX,","  '      -P's   i.y     " 
1  PI.  NX  J"                 PI  8xi" 
4ZM.6Xi"             4Z»8xf" 

1  PI.  8X1"     jf     rPL8XJ"~ 
2  Pis.  14  XJ"     i     2PIh    Mxp" 
4Z.,.6X^     l^'it'axl' 

1 

1 

j 

1 

Third....     10' 3" 

Second...      10*3" 

2  PI.-    16X,'," 

4Z.S.  6XJ"     1 
IPI.  10X1"    I 

0 

2 

Pla.  18X1" 

4Z8.  6X1" 
IPI.  12X1"    • 

First 12' 0" 

2  I'll.  18X1" 

4Z..i.  exj" 
iPl.  10X1" 

PU.  18XIS" 
•IZ.^.  6Xi" 

1   PI     1  9  VI  "     ' 

> 

, 

Cellar. .  .  j    12'  6" 

1 

2I'l.s.  16  XI  J" 
»Z.-..6X<" 
ll'l.  10X1" 

2PI«.  18  XU" 
4Zs.  6X}"      i 
IPl.  12X1"    j 

Jr-:  ♦'*  ^ iC ''r*^ ' ^ ^'^ 


w* 


ew^.-..v'-4| 


i:s(;isi:i:i{is(;  of  shops  .\sd  factohies 


SCHKDfr.i;  OF  ("iI.fMNS -r,m/mi«-,i 


llciith' 
Klii'.r       (.fiwi-ii,         C.il.  Nil   :i:i  C,,).  So.  .U  Col.  No.  :).'j  dil   Nn.  ;w 

floorn  i 


Twelfth. 


4fj2JXL>x|"     II..2lx2y|"         4Z«.  3X1" 
ll'l.  «1.J"  ll'l.7x,l."  MM.  flxj" 


Elrvi-riih       10'  :i" 


Tmlh  . .        1(1'  :t" 


Niiilh...  •    10' ,1" 


Kighlh.         10' ;(" 


SfviMith.       Ill'  it" 


Sixth..  10' :i" 


Kifth,   ..        10' :i" 


Fimrth.         10'  .!" 


Thinl...        10' :t" 


Suconil..        10'  .(" 


Firsl..  IL"  0" 


(Vllar.  IJ'ti" 


4Z«.  4XJ" 

1  ri  ejxi" 


4Zp<  BX,'." 

1  i'i.«x,'." 


IZ».  8XU" 
1  I'l.  8XU" 


I  2i'U.  nx.'.'- 
1  ri  «  X  J" 

I  IZ...  «XJ" 
j  U'I.Ib'xI" 
)  2t'k  MX,'/' 

■»  Zs  a  X  j" 


1  2V\».  14  X,'." 
IPI.  8vJ' 

i      4Z11. 8Xi' 


4  7.,..  5X,'," 
1  I'l.  7  V  ,\" 


I  Zk.  6xJ' 
U'l.  «XJ" 


I  Z-  6X13" 
I  I'l.  8X14" 


4  Zs.  6  Y  i  " 

1  I'l.  8X5  " 


J  2  Pis.  14  X,',." 


1  I'l.  8Xi" 

2  ri«.  14  X  J" 
2I'ls.  14X11"  1  -8xi'' 

4Zs.  6xJ" 


'.VU  ISXI" 
4Z.-.  (1  <t" 
I  I'l   I.'XI" 


!1'N.  18  xi;" 
4Z».  BXJ" 
I  I'l   12X1" 


4  Zs.  6Xi" 

1  I'l.  8Xi" 

:  I'k  14  X}" 
4Z.-  6xi" 


4  Za.  A  X  j 

I  I'l    8X1" 


4Z.^.  exis" 

IPl.  8XU" 


4Z«.  axu" 

U'l.  SXiS" 
2VU.  14  xr." 


2PU.  I4X,'." 
1-  8Xi" 
4Z.-1.  Bxj" 

1  PI.  8X1" 

2P1,H.  14  XU" 
4Z»axl" 

;  2Pk  18X1" 
1--12X1'' 
I      4Z.16XJ" 

1  PI.  12X1" 

4Z8.  Bxi" 

2  1'la.  18  X  til" 


:  I'Is.  isx  r 
4  /.s  BXJ" 
1     12x1" 


2I'N.  18X1" 
1  PI.  12X1" 
4Z.1.  6X1" 


1  I'l    12T' 

2  I'l...  I,S.  i;" 
4  Zs  Bxi" 


2  Pis.  20  X ! " 
1-14X1" 
4Z».  6XJ" 

1  PI.  14X1" 

4  Z.'.  oyj" 

2  Pis.  20  X  I ,'.' 


kft  •  T,»?*ri*'»i 


)y0Ol)  AM)  MiriAL  FliAMlNG 


83 


.SCmCDUI.l;  ,,F  ('.)I.UMNH-Con/m.«J 


I 


Col.  No  39 


Col.  No.  40 


TweHth. 


Elevfintii       Ic   3' 


i   I  Zn.  4  X  (■■ 
1  i'l.  6J  X  j 


Tenth...       W  ^ 


Ninth...    !    W  3" 


Eifhth.         ICa" 

Suvciith.       10'  3" 

i 


Sixth 

10'  3" 

Fifth 

10'  3" 

Fourth. 

10'  3" 

Third 

io'  ■■■■ 

Sl-coiiiI..  ,      1  .'  3" 


First. . 


IL"  0" 


Cellar. . . 


12' 6" 


■la.  UXU" 

^  .  I'l.  24  X\V'  ~ 
2PI.  2^X|" 
4  I,.  6  X  I  X  »•' 
2  PI.  11  X}'' 
2£1.  22Xi" 

i  piTaTx/v' 

2  I'l.  24  XT' 
4  1..  6X4-  J" 
2  PI.  1 1  X  i' 
2P1.  22XJ" 


I  2PI.  24X!" 
2P1.  24X}" 

I  4  L.  8  X  4  X  i" 
2  PI.  11  xj" 
2PI.  22Xj-' 

I  2PI.  24XJ" 

I  2PI.  24x"" 

4  I-.  6X4Xi" 

2  PI.  11  x;" 

2  PI   .^X*" 


1 

— 

29. 

fi 

o 

— 

s 

t 

3 

a 

V 

-  ^  — 

— 

i 

1 

1 

— 

^TtocJ; 


:?-'3.w«a 


mm 


BMaMTWH.iRKnw 


ai*j«^  i**r 


84       ENGINEERING  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


S(Hi:i)i;i,i:  ol-  COI.U.M.V.S— C»n/mue./ 


FItMir 

Height 

l»rtwtH'n 
tloors    1 

C„l.  No.  41 

1  4  Z.-*.  4  X  ,';," 
1  1  I'l.  05  X  ,';," 

1 

fol.  No.  42 

4  Z.-*.  .1  X    " 
1  I'l.  «  X    " 

C.il.  No.  4.1 

Col.  No-  44 

Twclflh.. 

4Ij.-2iX2xr 
1  I'l.  61  X  ,».'' 

Kli'Vi'nth 

10'  .(" 

4Z.S.  r,\V' 
1  I'l-  7X3" 

i 

! 

4  Z».  4  X ,"," 

TiMith.. . 

10'  :i" 

4  Z».  6\,\" 

1  1  ri.  8  X ,'." 

j 

j 

1  I'l.  6i  X  ,»." 

Ninth.. 

10'  :t" 

1 
! 

i  t  Zs.  oxr," 

4  Zs.  6X,'," 

Kighth. . 

10'  :i" 

i 

[  4  Zs.  6X1,\" 

1  i'l.  8XIJ" 

I 

1  ri.  sx,%" 

1  I'l.  8  X  ,'." 

SoviMith. 

10'  .!" 

10'  ;i" 

1    4  Z.s.  0  ■  .  •' 
i     1  I'l- 8  X  J" 

i 

1 

Same  as  Col.  No.  41. 

1 

4  Zs.  6XU" 

Sixth. . . . 

4  z.s.  6x;,;" 

Ti'i.  s>ri,;'' 

I'l'K  llxi" 

1  I'l.  8X1J" 

Fifth 

10'  .!" 
10'  .1" 

10' :)" 

10'  .i" 

4Zs-ox::" 
1  I'l-oXU" 

4  Zs   8XU" 

Fcmrth. 

-'  I'Is.  11X3" 
1  I'l   liXi" 

1  Zs.  tixi" 

1  I'l.  8X5" 

->  I'l--  11  -  ;" 

1  '/.f   (i  ■  i" 

L'l'l».   ISX-J" 
1       U'Xl" 
4  Z.-<.  flxS" 

1  I'l.  1.' .  1" 

■1    I'l.M.     IS  X  1,1" 

I  Zs.  fi  X  i" 

1   I'l.   12X1" 
■2  I'l-    IS.  ;■' 

1  z-  t)  >v 

1  PI.  cxir 

2  Pis  -14X,V' 

Thinl... 

1     4  z.s.  fix;" 
1     1  I'l.  sxi" 
2  ris.  14  X,';," 

2  Pis.  14  xr 
1   -8X|J" 
1  Zs.  6>  13" 

SeroiiU. . 

i 

1  PI.  S     IJ" 

4ZS.6  vir 

2  Pis.  14X1" 

First 

1."  0" 

2  I'Is.  1  (  <  ,"„" 
1  I'l  S  X  i" 
4  Z.s.  «xi'' 

1  I'l.  SXZ" 

2  1'l.s.  14  xy 

I  Zs  fi  -  ■ " 

' 

l-6Xi" 

2  Pis.  14  XU" 
4Z8.  6Xi" 

(Vlhir  ... 

l.'T." 

i 
1 

1  PI.  8XJ" 

4Zs.  6X1" 

2rLs.  14  xi" 

WOOD  AND  METAL  FRAMING 


85 


SCHEDULE  OF  r()I.U.M\S-r,,n/,n»frf 


Height  ' 
FI,K.r       l^twee,.        O.l.  No.  .5  C.,!.  N,..  ,«  C.l.  NV  .7  Col.  N...  48 


I  I 

Twelfth..' I  4  K-.  1>JXL'X1' 

!  I  PI  ax  J" 


EloviMiih:     10' ;t"  4Zh.  .IXJ'' 

1  PI.  ox;" 


4  Z^.  4Xi" 
1  PI.  0.1  X  J" 


Tenth...        10' :(" 


4  Zs.  5XJ" 


Ninth..  10' .1 


,,11  PI.  7XJ" 


Eighth. . . 

10'  .T' 

1 

!  4  Zs.  ox,';" 

Seventh. . 

10'  3" 

1  PI.  8X,-," 

?i 

Sixth. . . 

10'  .1" 

4Z.S.  exi.i" 

1  PI.  8X  |i'~ 

y, 
5 

Fifth... 

10'  3" 

1 

(4 

Fourth. . 

10'  3" 

2l'ls.  14  X  A" 
l-8X|i" 

I  4  Z.. 

•IXA" 

f  1  PI. 

J 

7X,V' 

J    Z.S. 

OXIJ" 

!  1  PI. 
J 

SXiJ" 

Third. 


10'  3" 


1  PI.  8X13" 

2Pk  14  X  J" 
i  Z.-.  6X|i" 


SecDml..        10'  ;t" 


First 12' 0" 


Cellar. 


12' 0" 


1  PI.  8XJ" 
'  2  i'K  MX  J" 

_4  i^.  a XI" 
1  ri.  8xj" 

4Zh  OxJ" 

2PU.  14  xi;" 


-•  Pis.  14X5" 
1-8X5" 
4  Zh  0x5" 


2-14X2" 
1  -  S  X  !" 
I     4Z.S.  ox}" 


1  PI.  8XJ" 


2PI.S.  14X!J' 
4Za   OXJ" 


2I'I.'<.  10  X  J" 
10X1" 
4  Zs.  6X1" 


1  PI.  10X1" 

2  PR  lexj" 

4  Z.S.  OXJ" 

1  PI.  1 1  XI" 

2  }'U   20 X}" 
4  Zs.  6X5" 

TpTiTxT^ 

2  Pis.  20X11" 
4  Zs.  6X5" 


1  PI.  14-1" 

.'  VU.  20  XU" 

I     4Z».  0X5" 


C 
^5_ 


■f.  ^  m-i^'j"^^^  -jsraatmiii 


86       EXdIXEERIXG  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


SrUKDUI.E  OF  CX)I.UM.\S— r.-n/inuf,/ 


Il.'itiht 
"'""       '"("l'o,V"""         ' "'    ■^"'  "*  *'"'■  "^'"'  ■"■'*  ^"'    •^"'  •"''  ''"'■  •"*■'"■  ■"- 


Tttvlfth. 


Kll'VlMill]  10' .T 


IVnlll.  Id'.!" 


I  Zs.  tx{:" 

1    I'l.  tiJV,-;,^ 


1  4  I-s.  2iX2XJ 
1  PI.  6X1" 


1  Zs.  ^vj" 
1  I'l.  6X1" 


Niiilh..  10'  .i" 


1  Zk.  fix,"/'      j  .t  z.s.  rtxi" 

I  i'l.  8x,v'     I  Tpi.Vxr 


KiKhtli.        10' : 


Si'viMilh.        10'  .(" 


1  Zs,  fiXi" 

1  ri.  sxi" 


4  Zm.  HXj" 
1  I'l.  8XJ" 


Sixth..  lO'.i" 


Fifth 10'  :i" 


Fi>iirlli.  10'  :i' 


■2  l'l.s    14  X  J" 

1       SVJ" 

1  y.s  6x5" 

1  I'l.  8X4" 


1  Zs.  6X1" 
1P18XJ" 


i 

■iVU    14  V  J" 
4  Zs  OXJ" 

! 

•-•I'ls.  IHXj" 
1  -IL'XI'' 
4  Zs.  6Xi" 

Thiril  10' .i" 


.SiToiiil...      10' :i" 


Kr»t I."0" 


1  I'l.  12X1" 
2  1'l.s.  18X1" 

4Zs  6XJ" 

I  I'l.  14X1" 

2  Pis,  20Xi;" 
4  Zs   OX  J" 


I     4Zs.  6X12" 

I  iT'iTsxTr 

)  2  I'l.s,  14X3" 

1  I'l.  8XJ3" 

1  IIXj" 

fiXU" 


tVliar. . .  .      12' d" 


,  2  I'ls.  20  VI, ^"    2  PI,,  ux,-," 

1;^14X1"  I~8X)i" 

_4Z«_6^Xj"  4Z.S.  6XK'' 

2i'K2oxij"  TpirTTxTr 

1-14X1"  4Zs6X|l" 

4Zs   6XS  i-isxir 


s^'Tja^i-..^ 


.•*f^ '-"-? 


WOOD  AND  METAL  FRAMING 


87 


SCHEDULE  OF  COLVMyiS—Coniimud 


:   Height 
Floor       between 
'     floors 


Col.  Xo.  ;-,3 


Col.  No.  .'>4 


Col.  No.  55      I       Col.  No.  56 


Twelfth..' ;  4  1^..  2iX2Xj"     4Iji.  2JX2XJ" 

ii'i.  6XJ"         ii'i.  eixr 


Klevcnth.     10-  ;j" 


Tenth. 


10'  ,i" 


Ninth..  . 


10'  :i" 


4  Zs.  3XJ" 
1  PI.  6XJ'' 


4  Zs.  6  X  J" 


1  PI.  8Xj" 


4  Zs.  4  X  i" 


I  PI.  6JX3" 


4Ij..  2 
1  PI 

JX2Xi" 
.6X1" 

4Zs 
IPl 

3X1" 
6Xi" 

4  Zs. 

5XA" 

1  PI.  7XA" 


4  Zs.  6X,'V 


Eighth. 


10'  3" 


1  PI.  8X,"." 


4  Zs.  6X|" 


Seventh.. 

10'  3" 

."^i.xth 

10'  3" 

Fifth 

10'  3" 

Fourth. .  . 

10'  3" 

Third... 

10'  3" 

Second. . 


First. 


1  PI.  8X1" 


4  Zs.  6XJ" 


4  Zs.  6X1,1" 
1  PI.  8X!i" 


1  PI.  8Xi" 

2  Pis.  14  Xt" 
1-8X1" 
4  Z.S.  6XJ" 

c 
■n 

J  Pis.    14X;V' 

4Zs.  6Xi" 

1  PI.  8X1" 

2  Pis.  14X1"    : 

4  Zs  6  X  J" 

1  PI.  8X»" 

.>Pla.  14XJI" 
4  Zs.  6Xi" 

2  Pis,  14  X  J" 
l-8Xi" 
4Z.S.  6XH" 

10' 3"      1  2  Pis.  14X,»," 
l-8Xi'' 

4  Zs.  e-'xi 


12'  0" 


1  PI.  8X1" 

Pis.  14  Xt 
4Za.  6X1 


2  Pis.  HXtil" 
•~     -     J,, 


!  4  t'"  flxj" 

Cellar....      12' 6"  I  PI.  10  X!" 

I  ;   2  Pis.  16  XU" 


\- 


1  PI.  r-xi"  , 

2  Pis.  14X1"    I 
4Za.  6XJ"     ' 


2PI.S.  18XJ" 
1-12x1" 
4  Zs.  6X1" 


I  PI.  12xr 

;  Pis.  isxts" 

4  Zs  6Xf" 


4  Zs.  5XJ" 
1  PI.  7  X  i" 


I  4Zs.  5XU" 
1  PI.  7X1J" 


4  Zs.  exj" 


1  PI.  8X|" 


2  Pis.  14  X,'." 
1-8X1 
4  Zs.  6X}" 


1  PI.  8XJ" 

2PK  14X1" 
4  Zs.  6xi" 


1  PI  6XJ" 
!  2  Pis  14X,".' 
I     4Z9  6XI 


88        KS(;1SEKH1\(!  OF  SffOPS  AM)  FACTORIES 


SCHKDUI.i:  OF  Columns— Cunrmuci 


Hi-i«ht 
Ho.,r         hetwivn         C.l,  \„.  .-,7  f„|.  \„.  ,w  (',,1    N„  .vj 


Twflfih   .     1  r.s  "J  Y  'x!" 

1  I'l.  fl  kV' 


1  I.S.  2iX2Xl" 
ll'l.  7xr' 


i:ii'viMiih      10'  :("         1  ■'.<  :!  .- 1"      ' 

1  i'l.  (i  ■  J" 


IViiih...        10' .(" 


t-Zs.  r.x;" 

1  VI  7  V  V' 


-Ninth..  1(1'  :t"      I 

J 


I  Z.S.  r)X3' 

!  1  I'l.  7VJ" 


Kiisluli.  .         10'  .j" 


t  Z^^.  0X|" 
1  I'l.  8  X  J'' 


Seventh.        10'  :t" 


t  Zs.  fi  X  ,".," 
1  I'l.  .SX,",," 


Sixth. 


I-ifth 


I'l'  .1"      I 


4  Zh.  fix}'' 
I  I'l.  ,s  <3'' 


Fimnh.         10' .'i" 


1Z<  Oxj' 


lliir.l...        10' ;i"      ! 

J  1'  I'l.s.  1  I  X  ,«„" 


ncs.  f>xj" 

1  I'l.  8  X  J  " 


ji'is.  nv,^." 

1    -8XU" 

■1  z».  6X),;" 

lI'I.  8XU" 

2  1'ls.  MX,"," 
»Zs  6X|r 


S'fnlHl.,  10' .-i"         J  |.|,     1  )■,;■■ 

1  Zs  tix;" 

^ ll'l.  8xi" 

I'ir-<t                IJ'O"       2  I'N    It  vi" 
I  Zs.  ti  ■  ;" 
lIM^-i"^ 

Cellar...        12' 6"       2  Pl«    MX!'" 
I  Zs  fix  J" 
1  I'l.  8x5" 


I  Z.«.  3XJ' 
1  I'l.  6Xi" 


•jfiwjsiimtkw  ^m^r»x-\'Wi-i^''  •  '   i^sm\Mfft^''JiMs^rr 


WOOD  AND  METAL  FRAMING 


89 


being  placed  just  above  one  floor  and  the  remaining  ones  above 
the  floors  adjoining. 
Framijig  of  Domes.— A    -ome  is  sometimes   an   appropriate 


Fig.  50.— Market  building  with  dome, 
feature  for  the  office  or  executive  building  of  an  industrial  plant 
distmguishmg  it  plainly  from  the  surrounding  shops,  and  it  is 
frequently  used  on  markets'  and  exhibition  halls.    Fig.  50      The 


51. — (Jffice  building  wth  dome. 

dome  affords  not  only  a  beautiful  feature  in  itself  by  day   but 
gives  opportunity  for  electric  illumination  bv  nieht,  an.l   it'  can 
be  made  an  effective  means  of  advertising,  as  the  lights  at  a  con- 
•  II.  G.  TyrreU,  in  ArcluUcfs  and  Builders'  Magazine,  July,  looi. 


ii 


'■-¥.     iii»iiwiiifiwi  ■Im^iMMi   'm  I'liim iii  mil  i  iii  i  m 


90       EXaiMJIJIilSG  OF  SHOPS  AXD  FACTORIES 


it'.  2'a  >li3.i  III. 


Fio.  52. — Office  building  with  dome.    Framiug  plan. 


■mmw". 


•k*  •  .^i^sryp-i-^^-'ii^jrc'^'isr^*^.  '■ 


WOOD  AND  METAL  FRAMING  91 

siderablo  elevation  are  conspicuous.  No  form  of  roof  lenda 
itelf  with  greater  effect  to  the  art  of  the  electrician,  for  the  lines 
both  inside  and  out  are  so  easily  traced  with  rows  of  lights  that  the 
effect  at  night  is  beautiful.  No  one  who  has  visited  any  of  the 
recent  World's  Fairs,  and  has  taken  time  to  study  and  admire  the 
illumination,  can  fail  to  appreciate  this  form  o'  construction  All 
the  principal  lines  are  inuicuted  with  lamps,  the  numerous  ridges 
radiating  from  the  center  to  the  base— the  base  itself— and  the 
crown,  are  all  brought  out  in  curves  of  light.  And  inside  of  the 
building,  the  effect  may  be  even  more  attractive.  A  circle  of 
globes  surrounds  the  inner  lining  of  the  dome,  and  each  rib 
radiating  from  the  center  is  studded  with  gems,  whUe  at  the  center 
IS  a  brilliant  clustc; . 

Since  beauty  and  utility  are  now  so  often  combined  in  the  design 
of  factory  buildings,  an  illustratioi'  is  given  for  the  framing  of  a 
dome  which  is  suitable  for  an  office,  or  such  other  buildings  as  a 
library  or  welfare  hall,  which  are  nowso  often  a  part  of  large  works 
The  roof  herewith  described  (Figs.  51  and  52)  is  78  ft  wide  97 
ft.  long  and  the  dome  is  37  ft.  in  outside  width.  It  is  covered  on 
the  outside  with  curved  sheets  of  rough  wire  glass  supported  on 
copper  nbs,  and  is  lined  on  the  inside  with  another  dome  of  colored 
glass  supported  on  a  light  frame  suspended  from  the  main  ribs 

An  unusual  feature  of  the  framing  is,  that  no  bending  is 
requi  cd  excepting  for  the  copper  skylight  ribs.     The  dome  is 
octagonal  in  form  and  each  of  the  trusses  is  made  of  straight 
sections.     These  tru«.ses  carry  the  purlins,  which  in  turn  support 
tae  skylight.     To  resist  the  bursting  effect  at  the  base  of  the 
dome,  as  well  as  to  curry  its  own  weight  an  arrangement  of  beams 
and  trusses  is  provided  connecting  with  the  roof  principals    and 
thence  to  the  wall  columns.     The  bursting  tendency  produces  a 
ten.sion  of  3000 11 ,..  in  the  members  er.circling  the  base  of  the  dome 
Each  of  th.o  m:un  ribs  intersects  at  an  angle  of  the  supporting 
octagon,  thuh-  insuring  only  direct  tension  in  the  outside  members 
The  mam  roof  is  covered  with  slate  on  7/8  in.  boards  laid  on 
tiles  between  7-in.  steel  purlin  beams.     The  ceiling  also  is  made 
of  tile  between  6-in.  beams,  and  the  whole  is  furred  and  plastered 
on  the  under  side  from  the  wall  to  the  opening  of  the  dome      On 
all  four  sides  of  the  main  room  is  a  heavv  cornice  of  expanded 
metal  and  plaster,  and  the  whole  int-rior,  both  ceiling  and  dome 
are  bnlhantly  lighted  with  electric  lamps.     The  coloring  of  the 
interior  dome  produces  a  beautiful  effect  by  day    and  the  re- 


92       ESGISEFAUSG  OF  SHOPS  AXD  FACTORIES 

flcclion  of  these  eolors  tlin)iif;li  the  outer  dome  presents  even  a 
more  hejuitifiil  exterior  effect  jit  lUKlit. 

The  wei<,'lit  of  steel  in  the  roof  uml  cohimns,  is  us   follows: 
Kiulit  (•(iliiiims   27,r>no  lb. 

*;•'""« I7,(i<)()ll,. 

TrusM's  1111(1  purlins 101, KM)  ih. 

14t),:UN)  II). 

Tile  total  eost  of  tiie  steel  work  is  S  I30n,  wiiich  is  ecjual  to  ").') 
cents  per  S(iii:ire  foot  of  ground  covered. 

Tru.s.ses  and  colunms  are  i)liiced  at  the  rear  gable  and  at  the 
•nterior  partition,  with  a  view  to  a  possil>le  removal  of  the 
partition  wall,  or  extension  on  the  rear  end.  If  such  changes  are 
not  anticipated,  two  tru.s.ses  and  four  columns  could  be  omitted, 
iind  file  weigiit  of  steel  reduced  to  ll,j,300  lb.  and  the  cost  to 
S3000.  This  is  equal  to  14  1/2  lb,  or  45  cents  per  square  foot  of 
icround  covered. 

The  tile  roof  and  ceiling  is  fireproof,  but  quite  heavy  and 
expensive.  If  it  were  essential  to  reduce  the  cost  still  further, 
H  cheaper  covering  such  as  slate  on  plank  could  be  u.sed,  which 
Vould  not  only  cost  less  in  it.self,  l)ut  since  it  is  lighter,  would  re- 
duce the  weight  of  the  steel  framing. 

If  the  skylight  is  not  reipilred,  the  dome  might  be  covered 
with  nietal^  inst(>a(l  of  ghuss,  and  the  interior  or  lining  made  of 
plast(>r.     The  tloines  of  monumental  buildings  are  usually  gilded 
on  the  exterior,  which  makes  them  conspicuous  during  day-light, 
but  if  this  expense  is  not  de.sii-ed,  they  may  be  covered  with  plairi 
l)riglit  metal  wliich  is  easily  seen  at  a  great  distance.     In  either 
ca.Kc,  electric  illumination  may  be  used  at  night.     Ventilation 
must  be  provided,  especially  with  glass  covering;  otherwise  the 
<'xce.ssive  summer  heat  is  lial)le  to  crack  or  melt  the  glass.     An 
ornamental  ventilator  is  .shown  on  the  drawing,  but  if  preferred, 
the  (lonie  may  be  linislicd  with  a  simple  crown,  ami  ventilation 
l)i()yide(i  through  port  ii.iles  in  the  side  or  louvres  around  the  base. 
The  cost  of  the  roof  with  dome  is  about  $700  more  than  if 
roofed  directly  over,  and  an  e(iual  amount  of  light  admitted 
through  several  box  skylights.' 

Long  Span  Roofs.— Although  long  roof  spans  without  inter- 
mediate columns  are  not  often  used  for  shojis  and  factories, 
they  are  frequently  convenient  for  such  buildings  as  rnUing  'ills, 
'  II.  Ci.  Tyrrell,  in  Architcch-  and  BuUdtrs'  Mayazine,  March,  1905. 


■•=»%-.  '■*-^- 


i:*^--  ..lijt'. 


WOOD  AND  METAL  FHAMIXa  93 

and  arc  usually  preferred  f..r  drill  halls,  armories,  cxhil>ition 
hulls,  train  sheds,  et<-.,  (Fi^r.  .-,3).  As  the  floor  is  then  free  from 
columns,  tracks  or  machinery  can  be  placed  anywhere  without 
restriction.  Wide  spans  are,  however,  not  economical  when 
hoistinR  appliances  are  suspended  from  the  framing,  for  the 
weight  and  cost  of  trusses  increases  rapidly  with  the  span  and 
supported  load. 

l-"or  the  purpose  of  estimating  approximately  the  weight  and 
cost  of  long  span  roofs,  without  inside  columns,  the  following 
data  will  l,e  useful.  The  weights  are  for  the  steel  only,  including 
trusses,  shoes,  bracing  and  purlins,  but  they  do  not  include  wooden 
jack  rafters,  boards  or  covering,  nor  any  gallery  framing 
W  eights  {;iven  are  i)or  stpiare  foot  of  sloping  roof  surface.     Arched 


ri(i.  T)."?.— Roof  witliout  interior  columns. 

roofs,  rot  including  the  items  mentioned  above,  usually  weigh 
from  8  CO  12  lb.  per  square  foot  of  outside  area.  All  of  the 
following  cases  were  proportioned  for  slate  and  plank  rouiing  on 
wood  rafters  2  ft.  apart,  supported  by  steel  purlins  at  intervals  of 
about  10  it.  The  unit  stresses  were  12,000  and  15,000  lb.  per 
square  inch  in  compression  and  tension  respectively.  They  all 
have  curved  arch  ribs  and  are  similar  in  general  outline.  The 
spans  are  the  distances  between  centers  of  side  bearings,"which 
are  4  to  5  ft.  less  than  the  outside  width  of  the  building.' 

The  assumed  loads  on  these  roofs  are  as  follows: 
Dead  weight  of  roof  and  covering,  for  trusses,  25  lb.  per  square 
foot  of  sloping  surface,  and  for  purlins,  18  lb.  per  square 
foot. 

'  H.  G.  Tyrrell,  in  Architect's  and  Builders'  Magazine,  Oct.,  1901. 


*^--1«-^- 


_rt 


- -yv.-. -  -w-  -TV  /,?ailB'.-??^fi3^B2Kr 


94     h:\(ii\p:i':i{i.\(!  of  siiors  .wn  factories 

Doad  wci>;lit  of  snow,  10  11>.  per  s(|U!irc  foot  of  .sloping  .surfnro. 
Wind  i)ressiiio  was  assumed  at  40  \h.  per  .s(|uaiu  foot  horizontal 
or  28  11).  normal  to  the  surface. 
I'awtuiket  ariiinry  is  82  ft.  wide  and  14.J  ft.  long,  with  five 
main  trusses,  24  ft.  apart.  The  roof  pitch  is  A',l  degrees,  and  the 
lieights  are,  10  ft.  to  eave,  and  40  ft.  to  ridge. 

fiU.V.XTITIKS 

■5  Irusws 07,(KK)  lb. 

^'-  purlins i>H,(KM)  11). 

1-  purlins 7,.')(.()ll). 

'"■"'•'I'K 0,1()«)11>. 

•'»*'<'••* 2,lt(K)ll). 

!"«*'"«''• 4,5(M)lb. 

T"»"l 110,000  11). 

This  weight  is  e(iuivalent  to  8.7  Ih.  per  sciuare  foot  of  sloping  roof 
surface. 

Portland  armory  has  a  span  of  92  ft.,  an('.  length  of  l."),S  ft., 
with  five  main  trusses  2o  ft.  apart.  Its  height  to  eaves  i.s  24  ft.,' 
and  to  the  ridge  .JO  ft. 

(a'AXTITIES 

3  trusses  :it  17.Sti()  ll> 53  r^^  |i,_ 

2  tnisM's  at   l!t,7(M)  lli 3<»,4(«)  11). 

(least  shoes "j'tOO  lb.' 

■*<""**  •"'""■^ 1,100  lb. 

•'•''■'""•''■ 2,4r,7  1b. 

-♦''^ '■"•'''   l,9,S0  1b. 

-"^  I'"""!""* liUOOlb. 

^^l"""'""' !M)00  1b. 

'■^I""''''"' 22,4(H)lb. 

**I'"""'""* .5,lH4  1b. 

'*I""'""'^ 2,S7f,lb. 

44  hracing  struts 4,488  li). 

30  bracinj;  struts 3  3Q0  ||j 

"-'■*>''■'' 3,'540  1b! 

'''"♦"' 171,400  1b. 

This  weifrlit  correspoM.ls  I..  (1.7  Ih.  per  square  foot  of  sloping  roof 
sui-face,(.r  11.7  Ih.  per  s(iuare  foot  of  ground  covered.     The 
trusses  in  this  case  were  made  strong  enough  to  carry  a  i:i-ft. 
gallery  on  two  sides  and  one  end.  to  be  added  in  the  future 
Phoenix  Hall  (Fig.  54),  Brockton,  Mass.  is  100  ft.  wide,  and 


fmsf^>y^.^jrm 


^si^^k'.  •. "fc'^-  r  "   m^-  **..«  p.'ii»- 


WOOD  .lA.    METAL  FRAMING 


05 


144  ft.  long  outHidc.  It  ha«  five  main  archoH  94  ft.  center  to 
renter.  Di.stiinco  between  tni.s«e8  ia  24  ft.  It  ia  33  ft.  IiIrIi  to 
eaves,  and  67  ft.  to  the  ridfie,  and  has  a  gallery  17  ft.  wiMo. 
The  only  steel  included  for  the  gallery  ia  that  for  the  ten 
brackets. 


Fig.  54. — Three-hinged  arch  roof. 

QUANTITIES 

^2  purlins 28,7001b. 

■^S  »*■■"»* 6,600  1b. 

rod  bracing 2,600  lb. 

St'^'ods 4,680  1b, 

5  »•■''*>•'» 99,5001b. 

*'^8*>«'« 3,100  1b. 

10  gallery  brackets 6,060  lb. 

'ro*''^ 151,240  1b. 

This  weight  is  equal  to  8.6  lb.  per  square  foot  of  sloping  roof  sur- 
face, or  10.6  lb.  per  square  foot  of  ground  covered. 

Northampton  Armory,  is  100  ft.  wide  and  long,  or  square  in 
plan.  It  has  three  main  trusses,  and  eleven  lines  of  trussed 
purlins,  and  no  gallery. 


•Vr   ■I,- 


-fr>.-vvT:a»*i-   -  •jt*S-'=!;if",'*«i';?«iM!«KK. 


!Mi       /•■.Vr,7.V /•;/•/?/. Vr;  of  SHol'S  .WD  FACTORIKS 

<ir.\Mrni;s 

3  tniHScs  lit   17.<KM»  II.          .".l.fKK)  111. 

(I  ciiM  cIkh's  lit  :i.'>(l  II.   J.UH)  III. 

;»  lie  nnU  lit  7H()  111 .    2,:J »()  II.. 

4  t  piirllMs  lit  CTII  II.            20,.'HHI  II.. 

I.otti.ni  rhor.l  strut.       ."i  20<)  II.. 

Iiiilli.in  cliiinl  tics 2,   (M»  II.. 

T.ilnl         '.)■•:.'.{)  111. 

.\s  the  sinpiiij;  roof  iiicii  is  11,(100  sc].  ft.  tlu-  v»'i(;lil  jht  .•iiiiiarc 
font  is  7.'.*.')  Il>. 

Il.iitfnnl  Hiiik  is  lO-t  ft.  wide,  and  124  ft.  lonji.  It  has  four 
main  rihs  .")4  ft.  Iiijrli  center  to  center  of  pins,  is  24  ft.  liijih  to 
eaves,  i.nd  lias  a  Ks'Hi'ry  Iti  ft.  al.ove  tlio  floor,  which  in  this  ca.se 
is  framed  of  steel,  the  main  lirackets  l.ein^r  framed  with  the 
trusses.     Tiie  roof  has  seven  lines  of  trussed  purlins. 

QIANTTTIES 

Tnisvs  uikI  raftiTs I.'?2,t00  lb. 

I'lirliiis    Ht,4(H)  111. 

Hods 1H,(KK)  11). 

TntMl    1S.J,N(HHI.. 

Gallery «>7,000  Ih. 

The  total  exjxised  roof  area  is  l."),('(0()  .sq.  ft.,  and  the  wei;;lit  per 
sijUare  foot  is  therefore: 

Hoof        ISl,SOO---l.-..r.OO  =  ll.,Sll.. 

tiulU'ry 67,000.  l."),(K)0=    4.111). 

Providence  I'.Nposition  Hall.  This  is  118  ft.  wide,  and  lOli  ft. 
iorg,  and  ha.s  seven  main  trus.scs,  JO  ft.  hiyh  to  eaves. 

(ir.VXTlTIKS 

7  tnisx's  lit  2.-..0(H)  II. 17r.,0<)0  II.. 

lU.-,  purlins  at  .■.,S0  II. (iO,:j(H)  II.. 

7  tic  Mitls  at  1,100  III 7,7(KI  I!.. 

Itaflcr  hraciuR     4,0(H)  II.. 

<.M)  struts  at  1(K)  II) 9,f)iK)  lli. 

14  oast  shoos  at  tiOO  Ih K,40<)  |h. 

Total 265,000  lb. 


noo/>  .|.\7>  MI-riM,  F  RAMI  Ml 


97 


This  w.-iKl.t   rum     nnn.l,  „i,|,  .,..-,  ||,.  ,„.,  ,,,„,,,,.  f„„^  ^,      ;,^^,    ^^^ 
1  I  .)  III.  |nr  .s(|iiai<   f.H.t,  I'liizDiital. 

TIm.  fnjlowin;.  lal,!..  ^ivs  .•,  .s,„,„„ary  .,f  w..i«l„.s  an.l  .lata  f..r 
till-  inofs  (Ic.scrilM'il  above. 


Txrii c  iir  i.ii\,i  si'Av      .)F.s 


■<|.ur,    l.,.„K,|,      '""       ""X'" 


|><T -.iiLirr    PIT  ^.iiiiiri'        <ihi> 

"  -l'>|iin«,       lii.ru..ri(„|,         II, 

II..  II,. 


I'nwtuckvl. .  .s.' 

rorlli'iij !ij 


rhtwnjx. . 
NiirtliiiniptiMi 

\'.iV.,cv 

rr.iviilcriri'  . 
I'luvi-lniiil   . 

H.Ml.iM.     . 

Ni'w  York. . 
Uriioklyn. .  . 


UN) 
I'M 
lis 
l.^fl 
l.':.' 
1711 
lltii 


ll;i 
III 

1!KS 


:.M. 
2: 1 
:ti) 
J  I.. 


lit 
J I 
.1.1 

I'l 
111.. 


N'tHM' 

.Von.' 
.Vone 


!t.7 
Mil 
.S  II 
lis 
(1..-. 

IJ    I 


III 

11.7 
IH.Ii 
tl.2 
I  * 


111. 
10 


1 1,100 

1  v:  (Ki() 


,IKIO 
-'."i.llOO 


l.'.OOO 


All  of  the  above  oxainple.s  have  arei,  action,  a  grapi.ieal  unalvsin 
of  ,stres.se.s  for  a  typical  ea.s<;  iieinK  -sliowii  ia  Fijj.  ",5  A  sitnp!o 
truss  roof  witii  curve.!  lower  -  i.onl  b„t  witlmut  any  arch  action 
IS  illustrated  in  Fij,'.  ,')(). 

For  the  ,)urpo,se  of  coir,pari,<on,  the  following  table  is  given  of 
lonjr  roof  .sjiaiis  f    ■  trniii  s.|ie(is: 


I'lilre 

Tl!  \I\ 
I{;ii]n>a<l  Co. 

f    H    of  \    .1       . 
(irariil  Ti'iilral 
<'    l{    I    >V  1'       .. 
Mi.llai..|... 

1'    I!    li 

!■    K    It 

I'  A   U 

siri:n  rn 

■■^p.'in 
ft 

l\> 
l!l!) 
■Ml 
LMO 

2:<r, 

OVA 

fl 

olj 
li.'>.> 

.■i7H 
70  i 

u.-,.t 

."m.*i 
■.O'l 

.")II,S 

Hi... 

fl 

ill 

1117 
iK) 

lOS 

N'lliiilii-r 

of 

Iraiks 

12 
11 
12 

.\r,.a 

1   OV.TI..I 
S'l.   ft. 

Jcrsfy  city 

N'l'w  York 

f'liii'.'iijo  , 

I.oriiioTi        

.Icrxf.y  fitv.  ....... 

I'itl-il>iirK 

l'liihi,l,.|,ihiri     . 

- 

12!I.MK) 

Hid.  Kill 
llil,!l(IO 

Phil-  'olphia. 

r    U    If 

:t(M) 

1..      ■•■! 

m     i:\(;i\i:i:rir\(;  of  shops  a\d  factories 


Cost  of  Steel  Frame  Buildings. — Ono-storj'  steel  mill  buildings 
creetod  coiiii>l(t(',  witli  .solid  walls  and  criinc  supports,  cost  80 
cents  to  81.10  per  siiuai'e  foot  of  <;roimd  covered, 
not  inchidius  ground  floors  or  foundations,  and  t<-KW  !^ 
similar  !)uildinj;s  with  crane  supports  and  corrugated  \{  'ti^ 
iron  walls  will  cost,  from  70  cents  to!?l  per 
S(iuarc  foot.  One-st.ory  steel  frame  sheds  ..-.uf)  r>^;^ 
or  huiklings  (Fig.  57)  without  provision  ,::^'  ^'^  "^?>ife-., 
for  cranes,  and  with  corrugated  ;'■''' 

iron  covering,  will  cost,  (>rected 
complete,  from  oO  to  70  cents      <..v' 
per    sijuare    foot     of  ■:;j,3         '•=>|; 

grouiul  covered. 


llie  cost  of  mate-    <rXA'^^-^%         '•^^•' 
rials,attl,o  ^^^^  %  ..■^^■'^ 

place    f)f  /,V'«-.-  ■?"-    -        V' 


manufac 


-  ■.:>}•> 


'j-,% 


4 


.•j'5f.?;. 


'M 


''^^'^'k} 

':-^f'''i-J>/^ 

..>y  -f 

■?    '^ 

»- . 


1-u, 


-'I  liic(-hiiif;ril  an'li  riMif.     .'^trcss  slicet. 


ture  l)Ut  not  erected,  for  steel  frame  buildings  with  sheet  metal 
covering,  including  structural  steel,  corrugated  iron,  doors,  win- 
dows, lla.-hiiigs,  gutters,  (■ondu(•!^r^,  but  without  ground  floor  or 
fo\nidations,  is  as  follows:  Machine  shops  and  foundries,  40  to 
,")()  cents  per  square  foot  of  ground  covereil;  sheds,  enclo.sed  on 
roof  and  sides,  30  to  -10  cents  p<>r  square  foot  of  gnu-.nd  covered. 


WOOD  AXD  METAL  FRAMISG 


99 


Tho  ,.ost  of  ,.u,Tu,atH  iron  huildin^s  (Fi.  08)  vviM.mt  cranes 
maj   alM,  1...  approxunufcl  l.y  finding;  tiu-  total  exposed  outside 


1-...    5<i.-Sn>M,.l..    r,.of   truss   wi,!,    ,.„rv..,l    lH,tt,„n   ,  hnnl.     Stros«   sluvt. 

";•";>  ofthc  Imildins,  i..rludin,,^  l„.tl.  walls  and  roof    and  .nnln-- 
i-'yng  a  by  30  cent,  per  «,uare  foot.     Steel  fran^esVor  eran^ 


I 

i 

s.     . 


100    i:xaixi:i':i{L\G  of  shops  asd  factories 

inchulirif;  supports  and  girders  only,  cost  from  70  cents  to  $1  per 
liiioiil  foot  of  Imildiiij;  for  every  ton  cupacity  of  the  crane. 

The  weiglit  of  steel  frames  in  multi-story  factory  buildings 


I'ni.   ")7. — Metal  covort'd  lioiler  house. 


not  over  eleven  stories  in  height,  with  steel  joist,  ginlei's  and 
cohimns,  designed  according  to  modern  specifici'.ons  and 
building  laws,  witii  columns  15  to  l(i  ft.  apart  are  as  follows: 


Fi(i.   5S. — A  power  house. 

tahii:  v— \vi:r<iriT  or  sri:i:[,  fhamks  i.\  Mfi/ii-sroHY  nun.inxns  > 


Imposed  Hoor  loml, 
poiuiil.s  per  jsijuarefoot 


Exterior  walls 


Weiflht  of  sloel,  pounds 
per  sipiurc  foot  of  fi(M)r 


''>0  W  ith  outsi<!e  frame. 

<')0  \\  itliout  outside  frame. 
100  With  outside  fraiue. 

100  \\  ithout  outsid(^  fratue. 
250  :««)  With  outside  frame. 

'J.")0-:!l)0  Without  outside  frame. 


14 

9 

23 

15 

28 
18 


■•  H.  (J.  Tyrrell,  in  ArchiucW  and  DuUdtia   Mayiuiut,  Jan.,  1903. 


WOOD  AND  METAL  FRAMING  loi 

The  approximate  cost  of  the  steel  frame  for  a  huildin-  of 
several  stories  cim  readily  ].e  ohtaiue.l  l.y  multiplvinR  any  of^the 
above  weights  per  s.piare  foot,  by  the  total  lloo'r  area  and  the 
cost  of  steel  per  pound,  which  is  usually  from  2'.  to  3',  cents 
erected. 

Fireproof  steel  buildings  in  cities,  with  terra  cotta  floor  arches, 

cost,  when  complete,  20  to  25  cents  per  cubic  foot. 
Fireproof  steel  buildings  in  cities,  with  concrete  floors,  cost  from 

15  to  18  cents  per  cubic  foot. 
Tlie  finished  cost  of  tiiose  with  terra  cotta  floors  is  usually  from 
$2  to  $3  per  square  foot  of  floor. 
Estimates  on  building  work  for  export  to  other  countries  are 
usually  made  for  the  materials  delivered  on  the  wharf  at  some 
seac-oast  city,  from  whicli  sliips  sail  for  the  foreign  port.  These 
estimates  include  American  prices  only,  and  foreign  ones  ..oed  be 
considered  only  when  the  American  firm  intends  to  complete 
the  building  in  the  foreign  country. 


CHAPTER   VIII 


CONCRETE  FRAMING 

It  is  well  known  that  concrete  was  extensively  user!  by  tlie 
Romans  i't)UO  years  aj^o  or  more,  as  the  dume  of  the  PantJieon 
and  many  other  ]{oman  Ijuihlinjjs  are  of  this  material.  Concrete 
reinforced  uith  metal  was  ni(,re  or  less  used  throw^rh  succeeding 
aftes,  for  walls  of  this  material  faced  with  stone,  were  lately  dis- 
covered when  pnttin-;  in  new  lifts  in  the  I.oiivre  at  Paris,  which 
was  hiiilt  l.y  order  of  Prancis  I  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
material  itself  is  therefore  very  old,  the  c:i!y  newfcature  being  its 
commercial    use    and    aiijilication. 

Tiie  modern  hijih-jirade  ))roduct  known  as  Portland  .-ement  was 
discovered  i>y  Joseph  Aspdin  of  Leeds,  Kngland  in  1SL>4,  and  it  is 
to  the  recent  development  of  methods  for  ])roducing  it  in  largo 
Muantities  at  low  cost,  that  much  of  the  recent  i)rogress  is  duv. 
'i'he  first  reinforced  coni'rete  building  in  the  United  States  was 
•A  resid.Mice  at  Port  Chester,  X.  V.  erect (-d  in  187.-),  and  three  years 
later  the  first  really  important  American  patent  in  this  ni.aterial 
was  issued  to  Thaddeus  Hyatt,  though  other  ones  of  less  practical 
value  had  been  granted  as  early  as  1S44.     The  first  reinforced 
concrete  factory  in  America  was  erecteil  in  1S87-1«SS  bv  Mr. 
Krnost  L.  Kansome,  but  the  tyi)e  seems  to  Iiave  met  with  no 
great  fa\-or,  as  the  sccoikI  one  of  the  kind  was  not  undertaken 
for  another  ten  years,  when  .Mr.  Ransuine  erected  one  for  The 
Pacific  Coast    Horax  Company    at    Payonne,   X.  J.     Tlie  early 
efforts  of  this  American    pioneer  in  concrete    building  seem  to 
have  been  discouraging,  for  the  new  system  received  no  general 
recognition  tmtil  about  1002  when  several  buildings  of  the  typo 
uppearc.l.     Durinjr  the  next  five  years  about  forty  shoi)s  and 
factories  in  reinforced  concrete  were  l)uilt  in  America,  and  since 
that   time    the   number   is   too  great    to  enumerate.     Progres.s 
IS  well   illustrated  by  a  table  showing  the  amount  of  cement 
produced. 

102 


COXCRETE  FRAMISd  103 

TABIX  VI.-CEMENT  l'Rul)ftTI<..V  .IF  Till:  l\I!i:i)  ST.ATKS  (IN  BARUKI.S) 

I'l.rtluiid  .Natural 


ISilO 

:{(H),(H)0 

1S<J0 

I.IMHMMX) 

i.siw 

r),<ir)2,(MM( 

v.m) 

S,.')(M),(MM) 

l!t01 

12.711.000 

\\\m 

2-_',:{L'.'),oo() 

l'.»()5 

.S.),247,000 

lllOO 

4(),4()0,00<) 

11I07 

4,S,7S.).(MH) 

mo!) 

(14.<!<»1.(M;0 

liMO 

7(')..).')(),00() 

7,0,H.j,(MM) 
7,0:{(I.(MM) 
4,473,000 

2.8.S7.0(,'0 
'  .VW.OOO 
l,i;{!).0()0 


The  1910  production  of  7G,.-)oO,000  harrols  of  Portland  cement 
l.ad  a  weifjht  of  1;{,U0(),0()0  ton.s  and  at  So.L'o  per  ton  was 
valued  at  S08,20r,,()00.  Thi.s  yearly  })roduct  wa.s  18  per  cent, 
greater  than  duiin-  the  i)recedin<;-  year,  the  average  co.st  in  the 
United  State.s  being  89  cents  per  barrel.  The  whole  wo.hi 
production  of  Portland  cement  in  1910  wa.s  1:50,000,000  barrels, 
or  less  than  twice  as  much  as  that  of  the  United' States.  It 
appears  from  the  above  table  that,  a.«  the  i)roduction  of  Portland 
cement  has  steadily  increa.sed,  the  use  of  natural  cenu  nt  has 
decreased.  There  .seems  to  have  been  a  decrease  also  in  struc- 
tural steel,  for  while  the  production  of  one  iJuopean  country 
in  190(5  was  1,L'()(),000  tons,  it  decreased  in  1908  and  1909  to 
830.000  and  l,04.-),(;00  tons  respectively. 

Advantages  of  Concrete  Construction.— Plain  concr(>te  without 
reinforcing  is  strong  in  compression  and  is  therefore  well  suited 
f()r  heavy  structures  with  only  coinjiressive  stress,  such  as  \\a\h, 
piers,  abutments,  foundations,  short  column.s  etc.,  as  ordinary 
mixtures  of  concrete  are  at  least  three  times  as  strong  as  the 
best  quality  of  brick  work. 

Some  of  the  advantages  of  reinforced  concrete  buildings  are 
as  follows: 

1.  They  are  monolithic,  with  the  soliditcof  stone,  and  grow 
harder  with  age.  UI.khs  may  after  a  few  years  sustain  loads 
oO  to  100  per  cent,  greater  than  tliose  iuc  Avhich  they  were 
originally  designed,  or  additional  stories  can  be  added  without 
Btrengtliening  the  original  frame. 


i(»f    j:\(;L\i:i:h'ix(;  nr  siiors  a.\i>  factoiues 

L'.  ''■''•■y  iircrnvpr.)nf;iii.l\\lic(isupi)Iic(i  wit  li\vin--f;l;.ss  windows 
iiiid  safely  <i(.ois,  liro  can  Ik>  ci.nlincii  to  one  story.  Thi-y  jirc 
W(>li  suited  for  foi-e  shops  Of  wlii'ievoi- open  (iivs  arc"  maintiiincd. 

;5.  Floors  can  Ik-  made  wai('r|)roof,  and  during;  a  fire,  water 
Avill  not  run  tliroujili  and  injure  -nods  in  lower  sl<.ries.  For 
this  reason  all  openiiifrs  at  the  lloor  should  have  a  :i-in.  etirh. 

4.  Concrete  I luildinj^.,  are  (iural)lc. 

.">.  They  are  ais,.  saiu'tary  and  can  lie  washed  out  Avilh  a  hnso, 
iiein-  well  suited  for  food  factories  or  i)ackin<;  houses. 

(i.  They    are   economical    in     >,>t.     As    thev   often   need    no 
spruikler  sy>ten.    they  may  have  a  less  total  cost    than  wood 
Construction   expense  is   reduced,  owing   to   the   possihilitv  of 
using  common  lalmr. 

7.  Local  lalior  and  materials  can  generallv  l.p  used  with  ninch 
saving  of  time,  for  no  delay  is  caused  in  waiting  for  structural 
timlier  or  steel  from  a  distance. 

S.   TJiey  can  he  easily  and  <|uickly  erected. 

it.  The  design  can  he  modified  at  any  time,  previous  to  or 
even  during  erection,  without  causing  exi)eiisive  delay. 

10.  The  thinner  walls  leave  a  greater  area  of  renting  space 
and  produce  less  load  on  the  foimdations. 

11.  \ilirations  are  less  than  in  either  wood  or  steel  l.uildin-s 
1-!.   MachuH's  can  nin  at   higher  speeds  and  .shafting  has  l^ss 

fiictK.n  and  therefore  needs  less  power.     Wear  on  the  bearin-s 
IS  .-ilso  less. 

!•{.  CoiMiete  buildings  make  a  larger  amount  of  wall  area 
av.ulalile  for  windows. 

14.  <'""'•'■*■>(■  tloors  are  not  affected  by  nu'neral  or  vegetable  oils. 

I...  Tiiey  are  vermin  ,,ro,,f.  for  rats,  mice  and  in.sccts  can  finil 
no  liidmg  ]jlaces  m  the  naming  as  in  timber. 

Ki.  They  have  a  low  Iieating  cost  and  an  even  temperature, 
I'l'iiijr  warmer  m  winter  and  cooler  in  summer. 

Disadvantages  of  Concrete  Constniction.-^In  some  resjiects 
<"ncret..  Imij.lings  are  not  desirable,  some  of  their  disadvan- 
tages hemg  as  follows: 

1.  Changes  or  alteratiims  are  difficult  to  make  after  comple- 
tinn.  'Iheivfore,  since  concrete  is  hard  to  tear  down,  brick  walls 
sliould  be  used  wlHMe  e\tensi,,iis  are  anticipated. 

-'.    When  outgrown,  tiiey  jiave  little  or  no  salvage  value 

■■^.  Thin  walls  ami  llo,,rs  easily  transmit  soun.l.  ami  in  certain 
l'ia.<s  iiu  .-e  mu.L  be  d<.ui.le,  with  an  air  .space  between  them 


COXCRETI':  FRAMISa  105 

_  4.  Tli(>  iiKM-il  of  Inw  ...sl  inny  in  sonic  .mscs  I,.-  I„st  whore 
inst.-a.I  ./  .•onu.,.,n  ImIm,,-  tlu-  r,-ulati..Ms  .,f  tn,.l(.  unions  niay 
'■«'<l'nn.  'ho  <>n.,,loyn.,-nt  of  l,ri.klay.M-s  or  ni.-n  at  o.iuallv  lii-h 
^va-(■H  for  nuxin-  and  pla.'inj;  the  .•onctct..,  tl.ou-h  sucii  n.on 
may  reasonably  l)e  en-aKed  for  layinjr  concrete  blocks. 

.^.  Shaftinfi  and  machinery  are  not  so  easily  attached  to  the 
ceilm;;  and  iloors  as  in  Wooden  biii!iliiij;s. 

().  Hidldin-s  with  concrete  exterior  walls  usuallv  have  an 
imhn.shed  api>,.arance,  uidess  extra  ."xiM.ns,.  is  incurred  in 
sin.c.al  treatment  of  the  surfac,.,  or  unless  it  is  veneered  witJi 
some  other  material  sucli  as  brick. 

7.  Holes  or  openin-s  throu-h  the  wi'lls  and  floors  for  the 
iU'commodation  of  pipes  or  shaftin-  are  not  easilv  made  after 
completion,  though  the  cuttin-  of  such  holes  mav  be  no  more 
ddhcult  than  through  floors  of  brick  or  terra  coital 

8.  When  made  of  a  poor  (piality  of  concrete  or  a  dry  mixture 
the  walls  may  occasionally  i-  foun.I  damp  inside,  thou-h  tir' 
condition  may  disappear  aK.x  three  to  six  months  whe-  they 
become  well  dried. 

9.  The  effect  of  certain  destructive  agencies  on  reinforced 
concrete  has  not  yet  be.Mi  positively  determined.  Sea  water 
cntamiuK  -suit  was  beli(.ved  to  have  a  disintejiratins  effect  but 
expeiience  .so  far  sh..w.-<  that  this  is  insisnificant  {('nncni' A,,,. 
Oct.  1911).  The  effect  of  electrolysis  on  ctmcrete  is  not  well 
known  tliou-h  it  may  have  no  efT<Tt  whatever.  Water  contain- 
m^^  acid  m  .solution  may  have  some  injurious  effect,  thou-  h  it  is 
probably  very  snudl.  P.Mroleum  au.l  en-i'ie  oil  produce  little 
or  no  effect  <.n  concrete,  but  those  containing  fatty  acids  ai)i...ar 
ti)  be  injurious. 

10.  The  framin-  members  have  a  lar-e  size.     Colunuis  of  e.iu.u 
strength  m  different  .luiterials  have  sizes  about  as  follows: 

Rivoto.1  st,H>I sx  Sin. 

*'"'**''■"" Oin.  nnin.l. 

Icilow  pine 12X12  in 

^'"■"*='' 11X11  in." 

'^'""•■'••'♦•' ISXlSin. 

Beams  and  girders  in  irlnforced  concrete  are  i)]-oport  innately 
largewhcn  compared  to  tho..e  of  other  material.  The  objection 
to  this  is  that  the  large  columns  occupy  a  greater  amount  of  floor 
.space,  leaving  a  sma^er  renting  area.     This  may  be  important 


100    i':.\(;i\i:i:L'i\(i  or  snoi's  asd  f  icT(Jiiii:s 

ill  lar^o  lilies  mkIi  as  I'.rooklyii,  w licit-  rented  spare  for  iiijimi- 
fiieturiiif;  |iui|Mi.-.>  cusis  2."j  t.i  ;}()  ccnis  per  .s(juaie  foot,  (if  Hour 
urea,  or  in  New  \,,rk  Cily,  wlu'iv  it.  rents  f.-r  10  to  GO  ct-nl.s  per 
Ki|Uai'('  fcidi. 

Materials  and  Mixing.— 'ihe  lliice  kinds  of  nioderii  cement  are 
known  as  Xatiiiai,  I'oitlaiid  and  i'u//olan  or  Slaj;  cement. 
Natural  ceiiicnt  is  suiialile  for  masonry  witli  only  compres- 
sive .stress,  i'oitland  l>ein;;-  used  for  nearly  all  other  cases. 
I'uzzolan  caniiol  lie  put  in  any  important  work. 

A^^ref;ates  may  ho  eitlier  line  or  coarse.  Fine  asKi^e^iite 
contains  sand,  jriavel.  or  cruslied  stone,  ail  of  which  will  pass 
thron,i;li  a  screen  with  1,  1-in.  ojieniiiKs.  Mortar  composed  of 
three  parts  of  line  a.i:,ure!:ate  and  one  part  of  rortland  cement 
sliould  l.e  at  least  70  ])er  cent,  as  strong  as  that  made  from  ono 
part  of  cemeiil  and  tiiree  of  clean  sand.  Course  iigsrcgatea 
.should  prefeialily   contain  stone  of  assorted  sizes,   the  largest 


lu.    -)<l.— Plant  (,f  tlic  rnitcd  Shoo  Maohincrv  Co  ,  H(-v(.riy,  Mass.     (F.  M. 
Andrews  \-  Co.,  arcliitccts.) 

not  exceeding  21  in.  in  diameter.  Natural  gravel  and  sand 
has  l.ecn  iini.li  used,  a.s  in  the  original  huilding  for  the  United 
Shoe  Mariiinery  si,  .ps  at  ]5everly,  Ma.ss.  (Fig.  M)  though  on 
the  addition  of  I'.to;,  crushed  stone  from  a  near-l.y  ledge  w; is 
used  nistead.  A  good  proportion  for  concrete  In"  floor.s  and 
walls  is  one  pjut  of  Portland  cement  with  .six  parts  of  mixed 
aggregates,  thou-h  a  richer  .nixture  of  one  part  of  cement  with 
four  or  liv<"  of  aggregate  i.s  hetter  in  columns,  while  a  poorer 
mixture  ,,f  ,,ne  to  nine  nv  twelve  parts  of  aggregate  Is  enough  in 
foiindali.Mis.^  Cinder  concrete  is  ;ood  only  for  fireproohng,  but 
H'-'l  fur  any  impurtaut  Structural  parts. 


COSCIillE  FRAMISa  107 

romont  i8  supplied  eitlior  in  l.:i;;s  cr  l,arr.-ls,  tlio  latter  l.ciriK 
iiK.st  suit.ai.l,.  ulu.,1  ,Iam].,u.s.s  is  pivsc.t,  ..r  f„r  I...1-  ..ci-aii  .-hip- 
in.>i.t.s.  Jia-s  of  ccincnt  wci-i,  it.l  II..  at.d  coiitaiii  al)oiit  1  eu  ft 
as  ordinarily  packed.  \  ham.l  .,f  Portland  cement  c.ntain.s 
four  baRH  or  380  II,.,  and  as  tli.-  e.nply  l.arre!  w,.i.iii.s  ai.ouf  20  lb 
tlio  total  weight  of  barrel  and  c.nient  is  100  lb.  The  volume  of 
cement  depends  to  some  extent  on  the  amount  to  wliid.  it  is 
compressed,  and  barrels  may  be  made  to  contain  ai;vwhero 
from  35  to  -li  cu.  ft.,  though  3.8  cu.  ft.  weighing  Oo  li;.  each. 
IS  the  standard. 

Natural  cement  is  also  .sold  in  bags  of  95  lb.,  though  there 
arc  only  three  bags  of  this  to  the  br ■•,■.■!,  which  weigh  altogether 
about  300  11). 

Hod.s  or  bars  .should  be  medium  steel  with  elastic  limit  not 
.■x.'ml.ng  3-,000  lb.  p.-r  s-juare  inch,  though  wire  mesh  is  con- 
venient for  slabs,  and  for  reinforcing  structural  parts      As  the 
"'•■tal  m  concrete  is  preserved  only  when  all  water  and  moi.sture 
are  e.yluded,  the  concr..!.-  sliould  b.-  d.'use  enough  to  perform 
such  duty,     ^\hen  th.,n.ughly  enclosed  an.l  protected,  the  metal 
IS  safe  ev.-n  un.ler  salt  or  fresh  wat..-,  as  is  fairlv  well  proven 
by  the  experiments  at    Hoston  an.l  Chariestowu  \rnnvHt  Aqc 
October  I'lll).     For  this  reason  cracks  should   b<>  avoided   'as 
steel  would  soon  be  destroy,-d  by  corrosion  when  water  enters 
J'.xpenments  to  as-vrtain  the  (-fleet  of  pai.it  on  nu-tal  for  rein- 
forcing c.ncrete,  show  that  the  a,l],e..ion  <.f  con.M<'le  to  steel  is 
decreased  !)()  p,,-  cent,  wiu-n  metal  is  painted  with  iv.l  lead    and 
SOper  cent,  when  coated  with  oil.     It  shows  also  that  adhesion 
IS  increased  from  30  to  40  per  c.-nt.  when  the  m.-tal  is  given  a 
c.)at  of  cement  grout,  mixed  thin  enough  so  one  pound  of  cement 
will  cover  \\  hen  applied  with  a  brush,  (JO  to  70  s.i.  ft      The  cost  of 
cement  coating  per  square  (100  sq.  ft.)  is  15  cents  for  one  coat 
and  -2  cents  for  two  coats,  the  latter  being  e.pial  to  GO  cents  per 
ton  of  ordinary  metal,  or  about  1  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  the  steel 
111  place. 

The  barrel  is  the  most  convenient  unit  of  measurement  when 
mixing  concivte.  and  1  cu.  yd.,  or  27  .■u.  ft.  contain  just  seven 
IJarrcls.     A  mixture  which  is  suitable  for  foundations,  contains: 

7  barrels  of  brokon  stone,  Rravol,  etc.,  p<>r  cul)ic  yard 
3  l)arr  'Ls  of  sand,  jior  cubic  yard 
U  b;irrr!s  of  efr.i<,-;it,  per  cui.ic  yai'vl 
25  gallons  of  water,  per  cubic  yard 


ins    i:\(;i\r:i:Ri\<!  of  sfinrs  .t.\7>  factories 

'I'lir  cnsi  of  smli  coii.n'lc  will  fic.|iicntly  tiol  cxcocd  ?.">  |)(«r  vnhlc 
yard,  wliilc  ,t  cniicsiioiiiliii;:;  fniiiulatinu  of  (niany  <>.•  river  Moiu! 
ill  raiii'iiii  si/.cs  laid  in  (ciiiciit,  iiii'ilit  cost  «8  per  yard,  tluMigli 
these  prices  will  dcpeml  uu  locul  (•.mdiiiuiis. 

The  streii^itii  uf  cincretc  of  ililTereiit  aj;e.s  should  he  about  us 
follows: 

1  iiioiitli,  cniNliiiii;  strciiKtli,     I  tons  i>,.r  squiire  foot 
;{  iMi>iitlis,  rnisliiiiK  MreiKCth,  1(1  t.iiis  per  »(|uari-  f.Mit 
(1  iiioiitli>,  <Tii-.liiin;  NtreiiKtli,   If.  tons  |«t  s.|uar<'  foot 
It  riicMiths.  criisliiiii;  ^.tn•lll:tll,  '.'l  tons  |mt  s.iuai.'  foot 
]■.'  iiiunths,  criisliint;  Nlicnctli.  L',')  tons  per  sciuan-  foot 

Design.-  The  four  types  of  const  ruction  conunonly  used  for 
concrete  liuildiniis  are: 

1.    i{<Mnfoiced  concrete  interior  frame  ami   floors,  With  lirick 
"iltside  walls. 

'2.    Hcmforced  concrele  intciior   fraihe  aiul    doors,  witii  con- 
cretc  walls. 

'.I.    Reinforced  concreto  interior  and  exterior  frame  and  floors, 
with  curtain  walls. 

4.   Li^iht  seIf-sui)port ins  steel  Iranie.  reinforced  with  concreto. 

Xumher  I  ;,'enerally  has  the  best  appearance  and  is  well  suited 
to  sm;dl  l»uil.liii,s.  Xumher  2,  with  concrete  outside  walls  is 
<lilhcult  lo  make  attractive  in  appearance,  and  is  not  usually 
built  as  r;'i)idly  as  number  I,  besi.ies  .  ,stin-r  somewhat  more, 
thoiiui  is,  no  doubt,  more  rii^id  than  either  1  or  li.  Numlier  :} 
IS  tile  in. .St  (Monoiiiical  desim,,  j.s  (piickly  erected  and  can  be  made 
attractive  by  usiiui  an  exterior  curtain  wall,  with  brick  veneer 
over  tile  structural  ])arts.  Xuml)er  4  is  one  of  the  mo.st  conven- 
ient types  of  reinforced  concrete,  and  mi^iht  better  be  called 
reinforced  steel  oust  ruction,  for  the  preliminary  light  steel  frame 
IS  stiviiiitheiied  with  coii.ivle  after  erection  (Fijr.  (iO).  Concrete 
1-  used  for  foiiiidations,  cohunns,  sills,  lintels,  beams  and  floors, 
and  steel  for  trusses  and  liea\  y  ,<;ir(lers  subject  to  jars  or  impact. 
Concrete  trusses  ;ire  not  economical,  as  the  forms  are  expensive, 
and  they  are  not  reliable,  as  the  joints  are  diflicult  to  make.  The 
iijiht  frames  of  structural  steel  should  be  iieavy  enough  to  carry 
thecrectiun  loads  and  form  a  support  for  a  workinfj  platform. 

'I  he  same  amount  of  care  should  l)e  exercised  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  desigrns  an.l  plans  for  concrete  buihlinjis  as  is  usually 
sriven  to  stru.'tiin,l  steel.  Stress  sheet.  .!,„uld  show  ^parately 
all  loads,  dea.l,  live,   impact  and  wind.     .Specifications  should 


COSCHF.TF.   FliAMIS(, 


109 


Rivo  «lio  proportion  of  iiiatcrials  in  (lifTcront  rnixdi.cs,  and  the 
Htrcn^Mli  that  coiuicto  is  as.suiu'd  to  liavo  at  tlio  cml  of  a  stated 
period.  The  ultiniate  merit  of  a  eoiirrete  huildinjr  will  doi)end 
larjicly  upon  the  use  of  coneet  desi;:nin^'  princii)les,  f.ood  details, 
safo  units,  careful  caleulations,  proi)er  quality  of  materials  ami 
careful  erection.  It  lias  Ion;;  I.een  an  axiom  of  structural  desi^'n 
that  .strength  anu  durai>ility  depend  on  the  details,  and  this  is 
quite  as  true  of  concrete  framing;  as  of  steel.  All  details  should 
be  plainly  shown,  even  minor  ones,  and  sizes,  j)osition  of  rein- 


Connection*  of 
B*am»  to  6ird*r». 


(10. 


forcoment,  v\v.,  all  properly  s(u<lied  out.  Sjx'cial  attention 
should  ]^c  id\  .  to  the  joints  and  ))rovision  made  for  tempera- 
ture chanties,  shrinka^te  after  i)lacin^%  and  water])roofin^'. 
Plans  and  si)ecifications  should  he  si^iiied  in  duplicate  liy  en;;i- 
neers  or  contractors,  and  these  parties  should  he  held  resi)ons- 
ible  for  the  safety  of  the  Iniiidin;;,  even  th<ju;;h  the  plans  are 
afterward  a|)proved  by  city  authorities  or  others. 

Fine  theory  is  of  less  imjiortance  in  concrete  construction 
than  in  steel,  u.vinj;  to  the  coarser  nature  of  the  materials,  and 
simple  formula-  are  j)referable  to  coni})licate(l  ones.  As  tlu" 
assumptions  on  wliicli  certain  foiniula-  are  based  may  never  be 
realized  witlun  100  per  cent,  it  is  plainly  useless  to  aim  at  exact 
proportioning.  Attention  should  be  given  to  essentials,  and 
trifler  neglected  or  lightly  treated. 


110    i:\(;f\i:i:i,'/\i;  nr  sntn's  axd  r.\(  Tonii:s 

I'l.plr.tiun  -liMiiI,!  lie  in:„|<.  au.iiiHt  injury  finm  fin-  hv  tlio 
l-m-Miii-nf  1,  l,ui!,lii,L:^.-..ii(,.|iis.  C.rHiri,.  i.'|,MMlv.|..com"],ns(v| 
:it  M  l..iii|M.|ntinv  uf  'tlH)  to  l(MM)^  I'..  !„it  ||„.  injuiv.l  i, ml. -rial 
IviiiMins  ill  pl:H-..  ;,iMi  f,,i,:i  .1  |,rnlr,li,,ii  f,,|-  ||„.  |,;,,t  licilCiitli  it. 
Thr  iicxv  i  UU-.r'n  HiiiMin,  |..av  </nv<  ..•panitc  nil.w  fur  l,iiiiain>:s 
"f  .iilTririii  liciiiht,,  t||,,„.  ,,f  (.(>  ft.  nr  „,..,•...  kti..wri  as  firopn.of, 
may  !.•■  ,|..M,i;natc.|  as  (  la-s  A  aial  luw.w  l.iiil(liii>;s  or  lum-iiie- 
pl-ddf  tiiifs  a-  Cla--   15. 

Cl.xss    A    Hi  Il.DiNds 

(•nlilliillS    l.rains    all, I    liinlcrs    imist    liavc    li.,t    los    tliali    J-iii. 
tnsciiiiii   (i\(|'  till'    metal. 

Slal.s  iiiu>t   liav.'  a  c.Nriiim  ,.f  imt   1,-s  tliaii   1   in.   l„.l„w  tl,e 
metal. 


Cl.  \^>    U    I'.i  n.l)I\(;.s 
Column-,   l.eams  ai„l   ■■h;]n<  mu-i    have  „ut  less  tlian  1',  in 

coveriiur  M\cr   the    metal. 

>lal.s  must  have  a  coveiiiii:  of  not  les-  ,l,;ni  '.  in.  hclow  the 
metal. 

As  the  efTeri  of  111-,,  on  eonrrete  lias  seiWoni  ],('on  fouml  to 
'"■'"■;'.■'"•  ''-••■["■'-  'li.-n.  ;  in.  even  in  ^vat  .onfiajn-ations,  the 
pinvisions  mven  alH.ve  afe  laru'  en,..u,h.  an.l  airreo  ••lo.selv  with 
111.'  praelire  , erom nien.le, I  l,y  the  .loiut  ('ommiltee  on'Kein- 
f..f.T,l  Connete.  The  a^hlilional  eonrrete  speeihe<l  al.ovc  is 
for  tire  pn.teeti.ui  only,  an.l  -houl.!  not  !.o  eonsiWere.l  as  n-isfin" 
any  .inert  stresses,  thoiidi  in  many  eases  it  actuallv  ,|„es  a.ld  tC 
the  streimth  of  the  meinlieis. 

Durin:;  construetion.  .aial  after  eompletion  tlio  l.uihlin-  shnuhl 
I-  msp..ete,|  l,v  th..  engineers  or  their  representatives,  and 
.^H'nal   ev:imii;aIion   made  of  the  f.illowinir  features: 

1.  <'<.miiar,.  si/.e  ,,f  nauiihers  and  reinfoirino  uith  that  shown 
on  ('i-;nvinL'. 

2.  (,)uality  :,iid   proportion  of  materials  an,|   methods  of  mix- 
in,!:  I  lii'tn. 

•S.    Xature  of  fort-  ;„id  hardiie.s  ..f  eoneret..  l.eforc  removin- 
them.  "^ 

■».    I'foteetion  a^,ain-.|  in.jury  aft.>r  forms  are  removed 

•'.    Applieallon  of  te.,    lua.l  on  s.,,ne  of  tlie  we.,ke-:t   pnr^^     *W0 

months  after  coiuplction. 


(■osciii/rr.  FRAMisa 


111 


Working  Units.     Wlu-n  pn.po.liuninK  „„..nlM.,>.  worki,..  „„it. 
Mr..s,so.  slH.uI.l  1,0  „s...|  .s  in  ......|  f,,,„i„,,  ,,„,,,  „,,„  „„;,„,,„. 

va  .......  as  p,o:  ,H,.,|  l.v  ..,„„..  ,.,,,.1  ,l„.s,.  ,.„i,>  sh.M.M  l..  I.nv „^|, 

to  Im>  well  (iiulcr  tin-  ,\mv<xv  lin,-. 

St..no  ,.„n,.n.f,.  ui,i.    ,,    ,.|h,„  .,-    , p.-.s^iv..    sin.„j:fh   ,.f 

().)  II,.  p.r  ,.,,,,..  ,„„,.  ,f„.,  .,,..„„,..„,,„  ,,,.         ,„^,^.  ,,^^^,,.  „^^ 
fitllowiiiK  w«iikiii;r  units: 

riait,  CDficrctciii  I'l.liiiiiii,-,  not 

'"■"""'      •'■""Pr<'SM"n,  .-.IIOII,.  ,,:.rs,,,mr..  in.-h. 

If  tJu-  cn,nprr..siv.>  u„it  i„  ,.olu,„ns  m  itl,  vo,-,!,.,!  ,vi,.f„rnn«  onlv 
..s  n>prc>s..„„Hl  ..V  V,  tiu-  wo.ki,.,-  sin-ss  n.ay  h.  in,.roas,.l  l.v  ''O 
per  c-ont  when  h...,ps  o,.ly  ..uo  „s<..l,  an.l  l,y  4,-.  p.r  ,v„t.  if"  ,ho 
eoL.n.n  has  h„,h  vmin.!  roinf„n.i„.  and  spiral  'vin.li,,.  IVn- 
^^l..n  n.  (•..nnrte  sl.,>„|.l  i,,  n,„st  cases  1„.  i;r,„„,.,| 

Adhesion.~Thc  ultiM.ato  a.lli..si„n  val,.o  ,.f  conrn.to  to  ol.-an 
stcvl  .s  ..(,,,  to  ,;on  11,.  p..,.  s,p,a,v  i„,.h,  l.,.t  w.„.ki,.,  s,n.s...  ., 
n.>t  exco...!  M)  to  80  11,.  per  .,ua,o  in.h  for  plain  l,ars,  and  :5()  ,0 
•>t)  11).  tor  wire. 

The  wurkin^r  shearintr  stress  in  ron-Tefe  that  is  not  rei„for.e,|, 
sho..ld  not  exeee.l  40  11,.  per  s.p.are  ineh.  thon.h  <;0  II.  is  per- 
nuss,Me  wuh  partial  reinforein.,  and  1:20  Ih.  per  s.p.are  huh 
.\tien  iii,|j-  reinforced. 

Tensile  stres.s  in  reinforcing  ha.-s  .shonhl  not  exeee.l  14  000 
1  ..  per  square  inch  in  .soft  .steel,  an.l   ic.ooo  i„  ,n,.,|i,„„  „,,, 

o,d  or^o'T      '  r'"""'^'^'-  ^"•""^"^»  '-f  -'"•-•  -..rete  at  the 
end  of  30  days,  do.-s  not  exceed  700  to  000  11..  per  s.n.aie  inch 
and  it.s  weight  i.s  u.sually  al,o„t  110  11..  per  ..ul,i,.  foot 

Separately  Moulded  Members.-In  this  type  of  constructi.n, 
t  u^  parts  are  „.otd.le.l  either  at  the  site  or  in  a  fa..torv  an.l  then 
Buppod  to  the  h.ul.lin,,  the  fonn..r  n.otho.l  nsnallv-  l.ein-^  the 
H.eaper  A  num:.>r  of  types  have  l.een  devise.l  inVludin^  the 
S  jvart  \an,d,an,  Arn.onre.I  Tnl.ular,  Clin.ax,  Unit.  Hta.^lar.l 
ad  ^\at.son  sy.steins.  Son.e  of  these  relate  onlv  to  the  floors 
oth-rs  only  ,0  the  fnunes,  while  s.„„e  in,.lu.le  l..,th  The  Si...: 
wart  sy.stem  of  hollow  .-on.rete  l,ea,ns  (Fi;;.  .;i),  though  origin- 
ally a  Li.ropean  pro.luct,  is  niani.factured  al.so  .nt  Mnn^n-d 
Ca.Kuia,  the  cost  of  Ih.or  wh..,i  ,.rectod  v.iryinR  from  ir'to  "^i) 
cents  per  square  foot,  depending  on  the  span  a.ul  load  specified 


Ill'    i:.\(;i\hi:Ri.\(;  or  shops  a\d  factories 

'I'lii-    \i-tiic.(iiv(l  'ruliular  t^ystcni  (Fi-;.  02)  is  :ui  IuikUsIi  product 
cost  in;;  ulxmt  '_'_'  cents  \h-v  .siiiian;  foot.     Climax  Ix'uiiis  (Fi^r.  (KJ) 
arc    made   in  Cliicauo,  and  tlic  Unit,  Standard  (Fi;,^  (il'a),  and 
Watson  systems  (I'i^.  (iHa)  are  also  American. 
Separately  moulded  memheis,  wlieii  factory  made,  havo  the 


-/;'y 


,r^l{nWi>i^'i,'^Z^:4^(:'^^  T 


% 


I'lii.  til.— Sciijuart  llc«,i-  l,i-;niis 
Staiul.iicl  Sect.  .\().  21. 


In;.  Ilia. — \'auj;lian  system. 


advaiita^'e  that  the  projxirtion  of  materials  can  ho  more  exact 
and  the  meinliers  can  lie  tested  hefore  election.  They  are  more 
relialile,  and  hi.nher  working  stre.s.se.s  may  therefore  he  allowed, 
with  a  corresponding!;  decrea.-c  in  materials  and  weight.  Tliey 
need  fewer  forms  than  monolithic  work  and  this  item  of  e.xpense 


E^ 


ijsi».rx 


'-  /5--_ 


1  I.;,  til'.— .Vriiieiina  tulH.„.r  system.  Fiu.  C.L'a.— Standard  system. 


is.  therefore,  comi)arati\Tly  .small.  They  can  he  quickly  erected 
and  alterations  after  completion  are  more  easily  made  with 
separate  memhers  than  with  .solid  coiustruutiou,  the  former 
heiuo;  more  like  other  block  .structures. 


•  -/■f'  « 


I 


'■'"■•  •'•'•-'  '''"'">^  system.  p,,;.  (llia.-WatM.u  sy.stcm  "A." 

The  di.sadvanta^vs  of  hidldings  made  of  .separately  moulded 


niemliers,  are 


1.    Lack  of  timidity,  and   (; 
metal.      The  first  of  these  ol 


ore 


'^  iiicrea.sed  amount  of  reinf 
)jections  disappears  to  some  e.\.t 


mg 
ent 


when  the  parts  are  well  connected  with  dowels  and  cement 


f.-»£i£r?2^^;-u^^ 


r  iJBi.  :',:£  jiSi^cmssii^r:' 


COXCRKTK  FRAMISa 


113 


C»o's  SrcT-ion  -rnifovtK rLOOMS 

I'Hi.  (il.— Detail  of  Watwm.sv.s 


li-ni.     Scparafily  iiioiildcil  hcains. 


-/■s  •  - 


1-K=.     05.-Dotail     of     Watson     syst,-,,,.     Separably     tnouLk-.I     „„.,„l,ers, 
ff>ni!>ined  alah  ami  braiu  consiiuction. 


-^^WSS^'W^, 


114     E\r,I\EKIU\(;  OF  SffOPS  AXn  FACTORIES 


Tlio  incroii.scil  aninunt  of  roinfnrclnp;  metiil  is  clue  chiefly  to  a 
liK'k  of  continuity  in  beams  and  slabs,  and  is  a  condition  which 
is  not  easily  (iveiconie. 

The  foilowinj;  table  {fives  comparative  weijjhts  per  square 
foot  of  floor  for  all  mat(>rials,  including  reinforcing  metal,  in 
concrete  floors  of  dilTerent  types. 


Wciclit  of  all 

iiiateriiil.s 

lbs. 


Flat  slabs 

('oncrcti'  and  tile  (  Kahii  system) 

Slab  and  beam 

Tcrra-i^cittu   arches    with    concrete  top 

bet\V(H'ii  .ste<"l  beams. 
Wat.soa  sv.stcin 


96 

72 
50 

55 
45 


w 

iight  of  stool 
lbs. 

3.75 
2.77 
2.41 

5.4 
2.75 

Concrete  structural  members  are  conveniently  made  at  the 
building  site  by  first  laying  the  shop  Hoor,  which  may  then  be 
tised  as  a  working  ))latform  on  which  to  make  the  pieces  for  the 
suporst.ucture.  Slal)S  may  be  cast  in  piles  with  nothing  more 
than  heavy  waxed  manila  paper  between  them,  which  is  easily 
removed  after  erection  by  a  jet  of  water  from  a  hose.  The 
l)ieces  may  Ix;  slightly  offset  in  the  piles  to  facilitate  handling. 
When  the  concrete  in  the  members  has  hardened,  they  can  be 
erected  with  a  stiff  leg  derrick  or  a  traveling  crane  at  a  cost  for 
hoisting  whicii  should  not  exceed  ?!  per  ton. 

The  relative  cost  of  buildings  of  the  monolithic  and  separately 
moulded  types  can  best  be  shown  by  a  comparison  of  two  dupli- 
cate ones  built  for  tiie  Central  Peiuisylvania  Traction  Company. 

It  appears,  therefore,  thai  the  building  with  separately 
moulded  members  cost  S2.18.")  per  cubic  yard  of  concrete,  less 
than  the  monolithic  building.  To  offset  this  saving,  the  building 
with  separately  moulded  members  contained  20  per  cent,  more 
material  than  the  other,  but  even  so,  the  net  saving  in  favor  of 
the  building  with  separate  members  was  15  per  cent. 

The  addition  to  the  United  Shoe  Machinery  Company's 
building  at  Beverly,  Mass.,  which  has  separately  moulded 
framing  members  cast  on  the  ground,  but  monolithic  floors, 
showed  a  saving  of  10  per  cent,  over  the  original  building,  which 


■.^'*i^j^wmEi%^s^^^impm7m^m' 


COXCliErE  FRAMING 

TABLE   VII 


Materials  iin<l  laI)or 


Cost  jM>r  cubic  yurd 


-Monolitliic         Separately  moulded 


Materials: 
Stone,  sand  and  cement. 

H(Uiif(>rcenient 

Lumber 

l'ai)er 

Tools 


•?;i.  ISO 
.!llo 

1 .  ;<;j5 

.000 
.U.5 


13 . 480 

1.140 

.4  SO 

.040 

.145 


Total  material 

Lalxir: 


85.875 


Carpentry  work 

Bending  and  i)lacinf;. 

Concreting 

Erection 


$5,285 


3.2,50 

.905 

.  095 

.230 

2  210 

l.f)85 

Am) 

1.080 

Total  labor 

Total  material  and  labor 


¥5, 5,55 


•«3.900 


$11,430 


«9.245 


was  wliolly  monolithic,  l,nth  the  addition  and  the  original 
l^e.ns  nult  nnder  the  direction  of  Mr.  Ernest  Ran.some  The 
co«t  of  grouting  the  face  after  completion  was  1  cent  per  square 

Comparative  co.sts  are  also  avaihvble  for  two  other  buildini  ^ 
of  separate  members,  namely,  the  Textile  Machine  Works  of 
Reading  Pa.   and  the  Edison  Portland  Cement  Companv's  build- 
ings.    Ihe  plant  at  Reading  cost  80  cents  per  squar^e  foot  of 
floor  for  the  frame  and  floor  only,  without  curtain  walls   finish 
or  engineonng  charges,  and  2.5  per  cent,  of  this  cost  was  for 
carpentry  labor  and  forms.     The  buikling  when  completed  cost 
only   ..,    cents  per  cubic  foot.     The  Edison  Portland  Cement 
(  ompany  8  buikhng  is  one  .story  high,  M-t  ft.  wide  and  3C0  ft 
ong    with  32-ft.   columns  and  24-ft.  girders,  all  made  at  the 
building  site.     The  cost  of  making  and  erecting  the  concrete 
was  only  S,,t,0  per  cubic  yard,  which  is  extremely  low,  and 
coul.l  hardly  be  reproduced  at  less  than  87.50  to  «8      Cement 
cost  SI  per  harrel,  and  crushed  stone  GO  cents  per  cubic  yard 


W^3 


^'•:. 


■vi-*;..!:;- 


.^-*r.: 


11G     EXarXEEIilSG  OF  SHOPS  AM)  FACTO.' f[-:S 

Tlic  cost  i)f  4-in.  sl;il)s  in  place,  wlien  moulded  in  a  horizontal 
position  j)i'evious  to  erect  mii,  is  about  as  follows: 

ConI  .  tents  per 
1(H)  s(i.  ft. 

Stool 2 .  ;{(>  eriual  •     JO  pt-r  cent,  of  total 

Concrcic  lalinr 2.').')  i^iual  to  32  jkt  cent,  of  total 

Carpenter  lal.or ")!>  equal  to    7.5  per  cent,  of  total 

Labor,  inixins  and  placing .">()  equal  to     7  l>er  cent,  of  total 

En-clioii 1   Sti  ('cjual  to  2.'5 .  5  ])er  cent,  of  total 


7.91  eciual  to  100.    jxjr  cent,  of  total 

Columns. — 'I'liree   kinds   oi   columns   are   ordinarily  used   in 
concrete  l)uildiii;;s. 

1.  Colunius  with  vertical  reiiiforcinji;  only. 

2.  Colunnis  with  vertical  reinforciiifj  and  lioojjs. 

3.  Cohi'Mus  with  li<;ht  structiu-al  steel  frames. 

Square  columns,  even  in  the  ui)per  stories,  seldom  have  less 
than  11'  in.  sides,  and  the  corners  usually  have  a  1-inch  chanip- 

fcr.  The  general  practice  is 
to  use  scjuaro  columns  with 
only  foiir  vertical  reinforcing 
rods  for  sizes  of  10  to  18  in. 
In  lower  stories  where  greater 
strength  is  needed,  lioops  or 
spiral  winding  may  be  used, 
in  which  case  an  octagonal 
form  with  eight  rods  is  pre- 
ferred. Columns  in  walls  may 
have  a  uniform  thickness 
tl'.rough  several  stories,  in- 
creased sectional  area  being 
secured  by  a  change  in  width. 
A  mixture  of  cement,  sand 
and  stone,  in  the  proportions  of  1,  11  and  3,  is  the  best,  and 
stone  shotdd  generally  not  exceed  1  in.  in  diameter.  Columns 
should  be  reinforced  when  tlieir  length  exceeds  six  times  their 
diameter,  and  when  extra  material  is  added  for  fireproofing,  only 
the  area  inside  of  the  fireproofing  should  be  considered  as  sustain- 
ing loads.  The  maxinuim  column  length  should  never  exceed, 
fifteen  times  the  inside  diameter.  An  additional  thickness  of 
1  to  3  in.  over  the  stntctural  part  should  be  allowed  for  fire- 
})roofing  as  previously  described  under  "  Design," 


I'lu.  00. — Spiral  reinforcing  for 
colunin.s. 


CONCRETE  FRAMING  117 

^'e^tical  reinforcement   wlien   used,    may  vary  from  1  to  5 

per  cent,  of  tlie  inside  colunm  area,  tJ.e  average  being  about 

2  per  cent.     Four  rods  are  most  convenient  in  square  columns, 

and  eight  in  octagonal  ones,  and  bars  are  quite  as  good  plain  as 

when  roughened.     They  should  be  spliced  just  above  the  floor 

level  with  butt  joints,  and  the  bars  surrounded  with  sections,  of 

pipe  about  12  in.  long,  and  1/4  in.  larger  inside  tiian  the  diam- 

etcr  of  the  rod.     Footing  plates  .should  l)e  placed  undei  the  rod 

at  the  l)ase  of  the  column.^,  and  tlie.se  plates  should  be  large 

enough  to  distribute  their  portion  of  the  load.     Column  hooping 

(Fig.  6G)  may  consist  of  either  bands  or  spirals,  the  latter  being 

conveniently  made  of  round  bars  from  3/lG-  to  1/2-  in.  diameter 

with  a  pitch  of  2  to  4  in.,  the  spacing  being  maintained  by  flat 

bars  notched  at  the  proper  interval.     Bands  when  used  may  be 

spaced  from  4  to  20  in.  apart,  the  usual  practice  being  12  in. 

The  cost  of  columns  18  in.  square  per  foot  vertical  is  about  as 
follows: 

^'"n"*"''" $0 . 5.-J  i>or  vertical  foot 

^*''*'' "•">  per  verticul  foot 

^''"'''"'* 50  iM-r  vertical  foot 

Total $1.80  per  vertical  foot 

The  most  economical  column  spacing  depends  upon  the  loads 
and  the  kind  of  floor  construction.  For  2.-)0  lb.  per  square  foot 
or  less,  the  economical  column  spacing  for  two  different  floor 
types  is: 

Floor  with  l)<>ams  and  girders 18X18  ft 

Floor  with  flat  slabs 20x20  ft 

For  loads  of  300  lb.  per  s.piare  foot  or  more,  the  column  .spacing 
for  the  above  types  is: 

Floors  with  beams  and  girders 15X15  ft 

Floors  with  flat  slabs 17x17  ft 

Beams.— Experiments  show  that  reinforced  concrete  beams 
are  at  least  ten  to  twelve  times  stronger  than  beams  which  are 
not  reinforced.  They  are  generally  suitable  in  building  frames, 
but  in  some  places,  such  as  crane  girders,  subject  to  frequent  and 
lieavy  jars  and  impact,  steel  framing  is  more  reliable.  And 
yet  reinforced  concrete  beams  have  occasionally  been  used 
ev.  r  crime  girders,  as  illustrated  in  the  shop  for  the  Ingersoll 
Milling  Machine  Company  at  Rockford,  111. 


mr^^mmPmsEjw. 


118    i:\(;ixi:i:h'i.\(;  of  shops  axd  factories 


'I'lic  cniss-scctioiiiil  outline  of  coiuTotc  beaiiis  is  usually  rcc- 
taii^'uhir,  or  in  tin;  form  of  u  bruiid  T.  A  good  i)n)i)ortion  for 
rectangular  lieaius  is  to  make  tlie  depth  from  one-tenth  to  one- 
twelftii  of  the  si)an  length,  and  the  width  from  one-half  to  three- 
fourths  of  the  depth.  Deep  and  narrow  beams  contain  less 
material  and  are  proportionately  fheajjer  than  wido  and  shallow 
ones.  T-lu'ams  are  really  riblied  or  stiffened  slabs,  the  com- 
pression being  resisted  by  the  slab,  and  the  tension  by  bars  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  stem,  the  concrete  stem  acting  like  the 
comi)rossion  braces  in  tru-sed  beams  to  separate  the  rods  from 
the  compression  chord.  The  proportioning  of  T-beams  is  at  the 
best  only  a  rough  aj)proximationifor  it  is  impossible  to  know 

J     how  great  a  width  of  slab  is 


6- 


Si. 


I  Not  more  than 

r — it'  — 


l"io.  >'u. — T-I)i':un. 


subjected  to  compression. 
The  common  practice  is  to  as- 
sume the  breadth  of  T-beams 
(Fig.  07)  as  not  more  than 
i)ne-f(}urth  of  the  span,  and 
the  distance  at  each  side  from 
the  stem  to  the  edge  of  the 
compression  llange  as  not 
more  than  four  times  the  slab  thickness.  The  width  of  the 
stem  is  freijuently  assumed  at  one-third  to  one-lift h  of  tlie  slab 
width.  If  the  stem  wcic  wide  enough  there  would  be  no  need 
of  assuming  any  pait  of  the  slab  in  compression.  It  is,  there- 
fore, inconsistent  to  attempt  fine  proportioning  in  concrete 
beams  of  any  kind,  for  the  natu  -e  of  the  material  and  the 
j)rimary  assumptions  are  such  as  to  nuike  these  efforts  useless. 
While  the  coefficient  of  elasticity  for  steel  is  quite  close  to 
30,()0(),()0(),  that  for  reinforced  concrete  varies  anywhere  from 
1,.")()(),()00  to  :),(I0(),()0(),  and  their  relative  proportions  or  the 
value  usually  designated  by  the  letter  \,  varies  accordingly 
from  0  to  20.  Home  other  assumptions  have  quite  as  large  a 
variation.  The  comi)licated  beam  formula!  proposed  by  some 
writers,  are,  therefore,  not  only  absurd,  but  an  actual  waste  of 
time,  and  simj)le  fornudai  only  are  approj)riate. 

Smicc  the  compression  in  slabs  and  beams  is  usually  resisted 
wh.ilyby  the  concrete,  joints  in  these  members  should  be  made 
near  the  center  of  the  span.  In  this  position  cracks  are  of  little 
consequence,  but  near  the  end  in  the  region  of  maxinmm  shear, 
they  are  serious.     When  a  condition  of  continuity  exists,  it  is 


CONCRETE  F RAM  ISO 


119 


customary  to  assume  tlie  honling  momont  as  25  per  cent,  less 
than  for  simple  beams  supported  at  tlie  ends.  The  formula!  for 
continuous  beams  are 

^1=    ,.,    for  intermediate  spans 

M=   ,->   for  end  spans 

where  M  is  the  bending  moment  in  foot-pounds 
W  the  load  in  pounds  per  lineal  foot 
L    the  length  of  span  in  feet. 
When  square  panels  are  reinforced  in  two  directions,  one-half 
of  the  above  stresses  should  be  considered  in  each  system. 

Beam  and  girder  reinforcement  are  less  expensive  and  more 
effective  when  made  into  unit  frames  (Fig.  68)  in  a  metal  shop 
than  when  loose  bars  are  asseml)lcd  in  the  beams  at  the  build- 
ing site.     Enough   reinforcement   should   be   used   to  prevent 


Fiu.  08. — Unit  girder  frame. 

deflection,  for  when  this  occurs  cracks  will  form,  which  may 
admit  enough  water  or  moisture-  to  ultimately  destroy  the  bars 
with  rust.  Beams  may  have  from  two  to  eight  reinforcing  rods 
and  rods  should  not  be  closer  together  horizontally  than  2\ 
to  3  diameters  and  the  clear  space  between  two  layers  of  bars 
should  not  be  less  than  1/2  in.  The  distance  from  the  center 
of  a  bar  to  the  bottom  or  sides  of  beam  should  not  be  less  than 
two  diameters  of  the  bar,  in  order  to  secure  a  good  bond  and  to 
protect  the  metal  from  fire.  The  bond  between  concrete  and 
steel  depends  wholly  upon  the  contraction  of  the  concrete 
when  hardening,  during  which  process  it  furms  a  grip  on  any 
material  embedded  therein.     There  is  no  chemical  affinity  or 


i2n    i:\(;i.\EEhi\(!  or  sffops  a\d  factories 

union,  for  if  (•(Mui'iit  or  concrete  is  pljiced  on  a  metal  .surface  and 
allowed  to  harden,  it.  caii  very  easily  he  l)roken  ofT.  The  con- 
crete must,  therefore,  surround  the  metal  in  order  to  form  a 
grip.  IMain  un])ainted  Lars,  either  round  i  ••  .vmare,  are  the  hest 
and  a  sli-ht  coat  of  rust  i.s  no  disa<lvanta,,e.  IJars  should  not 
1)0  upliced  at  the  i)oint  of  maximum  stress,  and  the  lenj^th  of 
lap  will  dej)end  on  the  amount  of  Htrcss  at  the  point  of  splice 
and  the  assumed  adhesive  unit.  Sharp  hends  in  shear  -od.s 
nmst  be  avoided,  and  diagonals  should  have  cITecUve  end 
anchorage. 

Stirrui)s  (Fig.  (;!))  have  been  found  to  increase  the  shearing 
strength  of  beams  by  MM  to  KM)  juw  cent.  Their  di.stance  apart 
longitudinally    should    gen.'ially    not    exceed    three-.piarters    of 


Kic.  (i!l.— Slirrups  for  r  iiiforccl  coiion-fo. 

the  beam  depth,  and  they  should  be  connected  to  the  horizontal 
rods.  A  good  empirical  rule  is  to  use  foiu-  stirrups  at  each  end 
of  concrete  beams,  .spaced  about  as  follows:  Place  the  finst 
stirruj)  one-,piarter  of  the  beam  d(.pth  from  the  eml,  and  the 
second,  third  and  fourth  .should  follow  at  distances  of' one-half, 
three-fourths,  and  once  the  depth  of  the  beam  in  each  case  from' 
the  piece.ling  ones.  A  vertical  sheet  of  expanded  nu^tal  or  wire 
mesh  may  be  used  instead  of  the  stirrup  bars. 

\n  original  formula  devi.sed  by  the  writer,  for  concrete  beams, 
which  is  easily  api)lied  and  yet  safe,  is  as  follows: 


D- 


[M- 
^('li 


where  />  =  depth  of  beam  in  inches,  from  the  upper  surface  to 
the  center  of  the  rods 


COSCRETE  FRAMIXa  121 

3/  =  hon(IinR  inoinont  in  inch  pounds 
r  =  ,v  fact,,,,  varying  fn.m  00  to  !:,(),  Init  usually  tak(,n 

at  1(H). 
/i=  breadth  of  beam  in  iiudics. 

Tho  cost  pc,  lineal  foot  of  concre.,.  joists,  dxll'  in.,  is  about 
as  follows: 

r..ncrcto  an,l  st.H-l ,„    r.  ,..r  lineal  foot. 

-•>  ptT  liiieul  foot. 

Total -,,  11, 

'"•  1><T  llll'Nll    foot. 

The  cost  p,.,-  Iin,-al  foot  for  reinforce!  ..oncret..  .rird.MVS    l->x 
^0  HI.,  is:  o  ,     -  ^ 

Concrete  an,l  stcol SO. (iO  per  lineal  foot 

I'orins ■)-  1-        .  „       ■ 

>■>  per  hneal  foot. 

Total  ,1-  .       ,. 

■  '■>•>  |ier  hneal  foot. 

Reports  on  the  cost  of  concrete  of  1-2-4  nii.xture,  in  a  number 
of  lar«e  bu.lCnKs,  showed  that  for  tiie  concrete  alone  without 

^^a.s  SO.IU  per  cubic  yard,  and  iu  the  columns,  S0.70  per  cubic 
>-.ird,  w^ieu  cement  cost  81. 3o  per  barrel,  and  sand  and  crushed 
sto  u.  80  cents  and  $1.2:,  per  cubic  yard  respectively  Plant 
rental  <-oal,  and  power  cost  from  oO  cents  to  91M  per  cubic 
yard  of  concrete. 

The  above  data  is  based  on  Chicago  prices  in  1011,  and  should 
be  carefully  modihe,!  to  .suit  the  local  price  of  labor  and  mate- 
rials, variations  in  which  may  eau.se  great  changes  from  tho 
above  appro.xunate  costs. 

sh.^Jwf '"'T-.^''"""""''  **"  ^°°"^**  Floors.-Connections  to 
«hop  lo<.rs  differ  according  to  the  size  and  weight  of  the  machines, 
ho  best  practice  for  heavy  machines  is  to  raise  th.-m  about  V 
"..  a  .ove  the  floor  and  to  run  in  thin  grout  to  a  width  of  4  to  h 
n.  all  around.  Light  machi.ies  with  insufficient  weight  to  hold 
thein  in  place  must  be  fastened  to  the  floor  by  expansion  bolts 
set  in  holes  1]  to  3  in.  deep,  drilled  into  the  .slab,  a  shield 
xung  used  when  drilling,  to  prevent  the  tool  from  going  through 

fl  ■  ,  1"  °\  7  "''"'''  '"'"'■'^'"^•'^  ''-"^^^  ^^''^  '>«lted  through 
the  floor  slab  and  fastened  with  nuts  and  washers  on  the  un.ler 
Hi'io.  V  ery  light  machines  may  sometimes  be  screwed  down  to  a 
temporary  wood  floor  placed  over  the  concrete. 


122    i:.\r![\f:i:i{[\(;  of  shops  axd  factories 


\   ''■ 


;«      Vil.l..,r  |l,,lt  /} 


irl.T 


:-J:vfi^ 


'ijil'     tVl  Iron        |{jT   H,.u.l.  .1  Holuil''  -  AmU. 

o  o  o  o|c 


llantfi'r*  eti.-. 


"IP/:- 


■^ 


■  l^nii^l^E 


;siEs 


r  ByNtem  1 1 


Ca-t  Ir,.„  Clamp  /       . 'T*,  h/^j-^^j!^.,  ;; 

'T"H.M.Ic-.l  Alla.-I.iri^l    ViL'/        f'       ~~"'^:S3 
Uult,  in  Slut         ^     ,s  ^-1 


Ct 


t^ 


. ,  , .    Anchor 

Uottom  "tT  Ht)on\\  /i       jj„|t 

UiMin  ur  CroHsvW  •/ /, 

'   \\\         /..  Ciwtinjs 

H 

a- 

L.,v.|  .1.1,  i'"J^'^'_ 

uit.i.tol„t    c.i-t  lr.)U 
Cljmp 

Attai'hi,.!)  Unit, 
fur  llauger»  ota 


O  0':O 


Unix  for  Aitachiiitf  i 


llloMIng 

,'.'0     UoU      ,_,Ko.iiia[-'/i 

'f\  I,  -  'riii^'^'-^lSi:XX 


eJd' 


O  Ol'O  <>\o 


Uiflir       ;  rjiKhor  Uolt 


]M 


C,>-Ur,„.-1^^         '^ 


i5l 


o  o 


*-''"""•  AtUc-hli.«  Uolt 

Girder  f>J 


Xir 


Fio    7('. — Connections  to  concrete  beams. 


*iiW"7Sm^' 


COSCRETK  FI{     l//.V(/ 


123 


^  Shafting  Attachment.  Tlicri  ,-  u  number  of  good  niothods 
Jti  use  for  attacliinj;  sliaftiiig  to  iUv  uiul.T  .side  of  concivlt"  lu-ums 
and  II.M.rH  (Fi-  70)  and  other  details  can  easily  be  devised  an 
neetled  to  suit  .special  cases.  If  no  provision  was  in.ide  for  such 
attachments  when  the  building  was  first  erect.'d,  holes  can  then 
be  tapped  for  <'.xpans;,.n  bolts,  usin«  a  portal»le  air  drill.  This 
machine  works  (piickly  and  at  very  small  cost. 

When  c(.iuu-ctions  are  planned  h.'forehand,  holes  may  then  be 
left  2  to  ;i  ft.  apart  through  the  beams  beneath  the  floor,  and  in 
flat  floors  without  beams,  cast-iron  spool  sockets  can  be  set  into 
the  ceiling.  Holes  in  the  walls  and  lloors  for  plumbing  and  heat- 
ing pipes  should  have  cast-iron  spools  or  sockets  ami  they  should, 
if  jMKs.sible,  be  placed  during  first  con.struction.  For  thi.s  purpo.sj 
subcontractors  for  plumbing  and  heating  should  supply  the  con- 
crete contractor  with  a  i-lau  showing  the  size  and  position  of 
all  such  openings. 

_  Waterproofing.— Concrete  made  with  wet  mixture  is  imper- 
vious to  wati-r,  and  walls  of  this  kind  with  no  greater  thickness 
than  8  in.  and  without  any  waterproofing  may  safely  be  used  for 
cellars  and  basements.  It  is  only  when  concrete  is  made  too 
dry  that  walls  are  pervious.  Coiicnle  blocks  whicii  often  have 
a  dry  mi.vtur.  in  order  to  make  them  (,uickiy  are  subject  to  this 
objection.  Conden.sation  is  likely  to  form  in  basements  or  other 
damp  places,  but  this  can  be  avoided  by  lath  and  plaster  over 
fur-mg.  \\l,ere  there  is  danger  of  crack  formation  from  tem- 
perature changes  or  other  causes,  metal  reinforcement  should  be 
used.  This  will  prevent  the  formation  of  large  cracks  and  pro- 
duce a  larger  number  of  small  ones  so  narrow  that  moisture 
ciinnot  enter. 

W  ..forproofing  may  be  necessary  to  prev(>nt  moisture  from 
soaking  1  ^he  joints  and  freezing,  thereby  tending  to  disin- 
tegrate ti.r  masonry.  It  may  be  necessary  also  to  prevent 
water  leaking  through,  and  discoloring  or  othe.wi.se  disfiguring 
the  interior  of  the  building.  Waterproofing  may  be  affected  in 
several  ways. 

1.  By  making  a  rich  and  wet  outer  mi.xture  of  mortar  with 
equal  parts  of  Portland  cement  and  sand.  On  horizontal  sur- 
faces this  can  be  laid  as  granolithic  with  a  troweled  surface  on  a 
wet  or  green  base,  at  a  cost  of  about  o  cents  per  square  foot. 

2.  By  covering  tlie  outer  surface  of  the  concrete  with  layers 
of  waterproof  felt  coat(>d  with  asphaltum. 


iLM    i:\(:!\i:i:i{!\(;  or  siiofs  .wd  {•.{<■  iouihs 

■'{.  Ky  rc|.l.i(inL'  10  |mt  iciil.  ..f  the  it'iiiciif  wiih  liy.lriiti'd 
liiiir,  III  ii.--i-i  ill  lilliii"  \.ii(is  ;iii(|  iiiakiiij;  tli(!  ciiiiciclo  iiiniu 
iii'Mi'ly  Iiii|)i'i\  iuiis. 

Erection.  M.lnfincc.l  (•..hcicIc  l)iiil(Iin<rH  should  Ix-  iTicird 
niidcr  ill  lca>i  I  lie  pmii.il  direction  of  iln;  designer.  In  cold 
weather,  nialeiial  may  lie  healed  hy  pjlin;;  it  ,,ver  sleaiii  pipes, 
the  mat.  rial  pile  lieiiiii  eovereij  witli  raiivas,  and  duriii^r  \vorkiii« 

1 1'"  ill''  I'Jiil  under  const riiei ion  may  lie  enclosed  l.v  ;i  curtain 

mid'        'lirh  heal  is  inaintainecl. 

in  juinim;  new  work  to  old,  tiie  iiardeiied  .siiif.aco  siiould  first 
lie  cleaned  till  the  aiivreuate  is  w.^li  exposed,  and  it  should  IIk'H 
lie  slir-hed  wiih  iriorlar  coiisistini;  of  one  jiarl  of  I'orlhmd  cement 


'  "■•   "'        liciiifiircc.l  iniicrctc  \\arcli(iiisc,  <  hica'io. 

with  two  part,  ,if  line  a-fe-ale,  iu'fore  ])lacin-  th.  new  con- 
ci-ete.  lixpaii.Mon  joints  .sin.uld  i.e  provided  at  intervals  not 
(xcee.lin-  :.()  ft,,  and  tiny  sho'  Id  have  overlapping  or  dovetailed 
joints,  Th.  rum  rete  should  he  carefullv  inspected  for  hardi.e.s.s 
hvuuv  tl...  forms  are  renn.ved.  After  the  foundation.s  arc  coni- 
J.IeK'd,  reinforced  concrete  l.uildin-s  can  usually  he  erected  at 
the  tale  of  one  story  per  u.M'k,  and  records  s'liow  that  lai-e 
I'Uh  linus  to  six  to  iN^elve  sloriivs  can  he  erected  complete  in 
three  to  seven  months. 

li,-.  71  •"l"'Wsaconcreteniaciiinery  warehouse  in  (hicaoo,  with 
one  tier  of  >ide  fiallerv. 


CHAPTKR  IX 


CONCRETE   SURFACE   FINISH 

''"'"•  'liliM^uKv  of  pHHlnrin.  ostl.Hi,.  .■n,.I  ,.|.....si„..  ,.ir,.,.ts  has 

unt.l  n.,-..ntly  Invn  ...,<>  ..f  tl...  ..hicf  .,l.j..,.,i.ms  t„  .•u„,.n.te  ns   t 

8tru..t„ral  n,uf..rial  iu  ,.x,>„s,..l  p„si,iu„s.     Th.  ,„m„v  j.ri.nitivo 
and  unn.uth  ,.nMl„..ti,.ns  of  tl,..  ..xp.TinK.ntal  vra.s  nf  i,s  .i..v..l- 

'>l""»'".».  ^'n-  s.ill  ,„„  evi.U.nt   about  our  lar,.."  ..iti...  ami  tJ.,.,. 
o  >...,x,o,..s  ,.n.a..o„s  hav..  of„.„  t„n.,..l  pn,.p....tiv.  huil.l.Ts  ,o 

other  an.l  ,„uro  attra.Mivc  typ..s.     FaHory  l,uil.li,.us  with   l.nv 

MHiy  vails,  tlu.  ,nn„„tony  of  ^^|,i..h  is  l.n.iun  ..niv  l,v  mni-hilv 

form  ,n.  r.nhtly  ,.„titl,.,l  to  .lisap.prnval.    '.Ma't.v  of  il...:,. 

.Utklm.  ,        ro  or..,..,..l  before  the  ......ho.is  of  s..rfa,.e  treat.ne,,, 

M.-.e  . levelop..,!   whtle  o,h.-rs  are  the  result  of  supposed  eeouo.nv 
cr  deliberate  disre-ar.l  for  appearances 

Surface  Defects.-Sun.e  of  the  surface  I.uperfeetio„s  of  eo,.- 
cret..  whMh  must  be  avoided  or  retuov..!,  iueh.le  efllores- 
ce.we,  era.-ks,  irregularity  of  section,  rou.uhness,  p„rositv  uul 
dustinji.  '  •  '         ' 

Efflorescence  is  supposed  to  result  fro.u  a  porous  ,.o,.di,io„  of 
the  ^yalls,  a  hnv.n;,  moisture  to  enter,  for  it  i.  not  found  in  drv 
IX's.t-ons  It  would,  therefore,  app..ar  desir-d.le  that  wails  be 
water  t_i;:ht,  and  n.ethods  of  waterproolinj.  concrete  have  ai.va.lv 
b(..n  oiven  m  a  previous  chapter.  The  n.o.l  m.table  case  .if 
0  florescence  re.M.nal  is  on  the  Connecticut  Avenue  ],n.|..,:  ,t 
A\a.sh.n.ton.  ilydrochh.ric  acid,  diluted  with  five  parts  o 
wa  er,  was  apphed  to  the  surface  with  sc-ubhing  brushes  M 
jaHor.  o     acd  and  thirty-six   brushes   bein,  used  in  ei;a;i;;" 

mlustrades  was  .  cents  per  square  foot,  but  on  plain  stufa... 
th(>  cost  .1.(1  not  exceed  2\  ..ents  ,,er  square  foot 

Hair  Cracks.-  The  best  n.eans  of  preventing  hair  cracks  is  ,o 

.M>  a  comparat.veiy  dry  and  loan  mixture  not  richer  than  o„o 

part  of  cement  with  four  of  sand,  for  it  h.,.  been  f,,- -d  '=■   r 

they  mcrcase   rapidly  with   the  proportion  of  cement""  Th'^l'e 

125 


]•-•()    f:\(if.\j:/:Rf.\(;  or  shops  a\d  factories 

cracks  arc  caiisrd  liy  coiiicnt  on  llio  sui-farc  hardening  and 
slirinkinii  mhiic  lajiidly  lliau  that  iii.-i(h'.  and  tlicy  can  he  partly 
av()i(h'd  liy  kecpiiii;  tlie  surface  covered  with  wet  sand  or  saw 
(hist.  They  are  ahiiost  <>ntirely  absent  on  iine  artilicial  stone, 
whicli  is  niduhled  in  wet  sand. 

Porosity.—Porosity  is  caused  by  a  lack  of  density,  and  if  the 
outer  and  hardest  layer  is  removed,  tlie  .surface  is  more  likely 
to  leak.  Walls  which  will  admit  water  arc  liable  to  be  disinte- 
grated liy  frost  in  winter  seasons,  and  the  outer  surface  should 
not.  therefore,  be  removed  in  cold  climates. 

Dusting.  -This  may  l)e  ihie  to  several  causes,  some  of  wJiich 
are:  In>uflicient  cement,  soft  sand,  presence  of  foreign  matter 
such  as  loam,  ])oor  mixing,  partial  setting  of  cement  before 
finishing,  excess  of  or  not  enough  water  in  the  suiface  mixture, 
or  the  use  of  driers  to  liasten  setting.  After  such  a  condition 
has  developed,  it  can  best  be  remedied  by  applying  two  or  three 
coats  of  boiled  liiisee(I  oil. 

Forms  and  Moulds.— Defects  from  forms  and  moulds  are 
very  comnKm,  and  include  irregularities  from  bulging  or  spring- 
ing of  the  plaids,  joint  marks  or  seams,  roughness,  and  insufficient 
care  in  tamping  the  ingredients  against  the  sides.  To  avoid 
leaving  any  impress  on  the  masonry,  the  wooil  may  be  given  a 
fine  surface  or  may  be  coated  with  soap,  grease,  or  paraffine,  or 
covered  over  with  building  paper.  These  will  also  prevent  the 
concrete  from  sticking  to  the  wood.  A  sticky  oil  has  some- 
times licen  ajiplied  to  the  inner  face  of  forms,  and  clean  sand 
then  blown  over  it  from  a  bellows.  This  gives  a  uniform  surface 
which  appears  on  the  concrete  as  a  sand  finish.  A  rather  cx- 
jHiisive  method  which  lias  occasionally  been  used  on  important 
W(!rk,  is  to  cover  the  forms  with  expanded  metal  and  then  coat 
with  fijie  i)Iaster,  the  resulting  surface  being  so  smooth  as  to 
avoid  marks  of  any  kiml  on  the  comi)leted  exterior.  A  similar 
but  cheajH'r  way  is  to  cover  the  forms  with  fine  clay  and  then 
overlay  the  clay  w'wh  building  paper.  When  concrete  is  deposited 
against  the  lioards,  utiless  they  are  otherwise  covered,  they  should 
li(>  wet  with  a  hose  to  jireveiit  absorption  from  the  mixture  which 
would  result  in  tun  rapid  nr  tmeven  drying.  "When  exterior 
(ivatmenf  is  iiitendid  after  the  forms  are  removed,  the  above 
precautions  are  umiccessary,  and  indeed,  a  poorer  grade  of 
lundu'r  can  be  used,  tiicreby  reducing  this  item  of  expense,  which 
will  to  some  extent  o!T.-et  tiie  extra  cost  of  after  treainu-ui. 


mm^'mw'wEJF^ 


CONCRE TE  S ( 'RF. U'K  FIMSH 


127 


Since  It  IS  (hfficult  to  avoid  joint  marks,  they  arc  sometimes 
ac'-cntuated  by  fastening  small  triangular  strips  over  the  cracks 
between  the  planks,  leaving  horizontal  Rrooves  on  the  masonry 
somewhat  similar  to  stone  joints.  It  is  claimed  l,y  some  that 
such  markin^rs  aro  insincere  and  an  effort  at  imitation  but  if 
used  wholly  to  efface  unsightly  lines,  they  would  seem  to  have 
a  sincere  and  truthful  purpose. 

Moulds  for  fin«T  w..rk  have  been  made  of  wood,  metal,  sand 
and  plaster  of  Paris.  Artifu^ial  stone  is  usually  cast  in  sand  the 
cement  and  fine  crushed  stone  mixed  in  the  consistency  of  soft 
cream,  beinK  poured  into  the  sand  and  allowetl  to  remain  the-e 
for  three  or  four  days.  The  excess  water  from  the  mixture 
easily  drains  off  through  the  sand  and  allows  the  stone  to  harden 
and  dry  uniformly  without  the  formation  of  surface  cracks 

Need  of  Treatment-There  appears  to  be  onlv  one  process  of 
building  concrete  in  wliich  an  after  treatment"  of  the  exposed 
surface  is  unnecessary,  and  that  is  by  using  a  fairly  dry  and  lean 
mixture  on  the  face,  with  fine  aggregate.     With  concrete  of 
this  kind,  form  marks  do  not  appear  when  the  boards  are  re- 
moved.    A  suitable  mixture  is  composed  of  cement,  sand  and 
fine-crushed  stone  in  the  proportions  })y  volume  of  1,  IV    and 
41,,    the   stone   ranging  in   a   size   from   i   to    \    in      For  thin 
walls,  this  composition  is  used  alone,  but  on  thicker  ones    it 
should  form  a  facing  about  1\  in.  thick  over  ordinary  concrete 
backing,  the  facing  mixture  being  placed  bv  using  a  movable 
metal  shield,  or  by  any  of  the  other  approved  methods      The  use 
of  a  dry  mixture  makes  a  wall  that  is  more  or  less  porous  but  in 
Chicago  where  it  is  extensively  used  by  the  South  Park  Com- 
mission, after  a  trial  of  eight  years,  no  injury  from  frost  has 
been  found. 

Methods  of  Treatment.-The  surface  of  concrete  made  with  a 
wet  mixture,  and  enough  density  when  dry  to  be  impervious  to 
water,  almost  always  shows  imperfections  of  various  kinds 
some  of  which  are  form  marks,  roughness,  cracks,  and  efflores- 
cence, and  these  can  be  removed  onlv  bv  some  kind  of  after 
treatment.  After  several  years  of  careful  experiment  and 
investigation,  a  number  of  methods  of  treating  and  finishing 
concn-te  surfa.'es  have  been  developed,  which  have  proved 
satisfactory.  These  methods  may  be  grouped  into  three  gen- 
eral classes,  (A)  Surface  Coating.  (H)  veneering;  an.I  (C)  surface 
removal.     Tliese  may  be  further  subdivided  as  follows: 


.SJfei'^tS'Ji 


i-'8    i:.\<;i.\i:i:ix'r.\G  of  shops  a\d  factories 


(A)  Siirfai'o  Coating. 

(1)  Wasliing. 

(2)  I'ainting. 
(B;   Veneering. 

(3)  Brick,  stone  or  Tile  Facing. 

(4)  Plastering. 
(J)  Stucco  rinisli. 

(C)  Surface  licnioval. 
(Oj  San<l  Bla.sting. 

(7)  Tooling. 

(8)  l{ul)l)ing. 
(It)  Picking. 

(10)  Scriilibing. 

(11)  P.'liMc  Da.vliing. 
(IL')  Acid  l-.lcliing. 

Tlicso  iiictliods  an-  (lcsciil)oil  soinowhat  in  dotail  in  the  following 
p:i,;;('s.  Hcforo  proiccdiiig  with  his  i)lans,  tlic  dosi<;ncr  should 
lir.st  cU'iide  upmi  the  tyi)e  of  finish  which  he  prefers,  as  this  will 
affect  to  some  e.\tent  the  actual  construction. 

StnK.VCE    CO.\TI\G 

Wasliiiifi  with  cement  grout  and  painting,  are  the  usiuil 
methods  of  surface  coating,  tliough  both  of  tiiem  arc  carried  otit 
in  numy  ways,  diff(>ring  from  each  other  only  enough  to  allow 
p.Mtent  j)roprietors  to  esta!)lish  their  ownership. 

Washing  monolithic  surfaces  with  cement  or  lime  has  tiio 
merit  of  low  cost,  but  is  oidy  a  poor  substitute  for  something 
better,  as  it  is  not  stable.  Wherever  jwssible,  the  thin  grout 
siiould  be  applied  with  wooden  floats,  as  l)rushes  leave  streaks. 
A  cement  wash  is  made  by  mixing  three  ])arts  of  natural  or  Port- 
land cement  with  one  part  clean  sand  and  etuiugh  water  to  nud<e 
it  easily  api)lied.  The  mi.xture  sliou!,!  be  as  th'-k  as  can  be 
w(irk<'d  with  a  whitewash  brush,  and  the  who'-  "Id  be   well 

stirred  before  using.     This  will  i)rodu(e  a  gr;  the  shade 

<lei)eniling  somewhat  on  the  brand  of  cement.  nt  of  cement 

and  i)laster  of  Paris  is  also  used  and  nuiy  be  .  .rly  applied. 
Hrick  color  is  obtained  by  adding  10  i)er  cent,  by  weight  of  red 
iron  ore,  which  shouhl  be  mi.xed  in  at  first.  ]iy  increasing 
this  proportion  to  liO  per  cent,  by  weight,  a  dark  red  color  re- 
sults. \'enetiaii  red  cannot  be  recommended,  as  it  ([uickly 
fades.  If  a  white  surface  is  (l(>sired,  the  cement  wash  can  first 
be  a|)plied  in  two  coats  and  whitewash  added  afterward.  These 
api.lications  will  adhere  better  when  applied  to  concrete  that  ia 
gi'uun  or  moist. 


'^^■'^iiirt-^'- v^''v'"^'^'>¥.  -mkx 


CONCRETE  SURFACE  FINISH 


129 

A  Rood  whitcwasli  wl.icl,  is  uso.I  on  Unitorl  Stn. 

witl.    h„ilins   water     .ml       ',.-•,• '  ''"''^'"^  '''  ''"^J^^'  «f  l""e 

»>oilccl  to  a  thin  jelly    i  \\,  ^f  T.u       ^  .       .'   "^  ^"'""'"'^  "^« 
2  lb.  of  dissolved   .  iar  «l^e  li      n  f^'f^'  "'"*'"«'  ^"^ 

"»-'  -ixed,  and  appl  ed  tot  .vitl    .     I  •       '  '  "'■"'^'"^-  ^^'^^^^ 
-;.«urfaeeis^i.i.inl:nf;^^^^^^^ 

fiv.juent   renewils      Tl.o   ,.     i  ,         ^  ''^  ^'^"i  ^n^  needs 

of  zinc  sii  nhate      Tf  m..,.  i      *•  .    ,  ,        '  ^'"*  ^"^  2  lb. 

fawn  color.  '  "     '  '^  ^^'''"^  '^'^  ^'^^  ^  lb.  of  lamp  bUck  for 

Painting.— An  oil  paint  suitable  for  walls  is  mn.1.  i 
one  i)art  oacli  nf  «-l,;t„  „      i        ,       .  made  by  mixing 

tl..»  mixture  a.s  a  !»«■  emu"  I,  r,,   li  ,  "■""•"■     ^° 

tai..»  no  l„„,|  „h,"  or"n.or  ,"'' '  ■"•■*<"■»"■»■     It  co„- 

;i™.»  -viti,  »  .mil  fi„i,i,,  a„  I  „„ '    ■  "  '  °"'  '''■»°*  »■«"■ . 

II   »  n,aclo  „„ly  i„  ,;,,„•„  f„„    L    ■  to  ll 'I  T'"''™  *"' 
paste.  '"-''">  lor  use  and  never  in  a 

■•'  ^'"v"ii*aie  a„j  :x';  r  ;:,"rz',r '!■:  Y  Tfi" 

aii.AV.-d  to  dry  for  two  or  three  d-ivs  "-liL  ".    '^•'^^'°"^^^  '^^ 

applle.  over  .,.e  .e.„e„.  .„„  ».:et  :;.;'::;i'::;;Ve:  ""  ^° 


o*i.;'''.r- 


no   e\gim:ering  of  shops  and  factories 

VEN'EEniNG 

Brick  and  Stone  Veneering. — This  is  one  of  the  oklest  methods 
of  fiwinji  concrote,  for  tlie  Romans  used  it  twenty  centuries  ago. 
Kul)l)lo  masonry  and  concrete  were  often  faced  with  tufa  and 
travertine  as  on  t]ie  bridges  over  the  Til)cr,  and  recent  excava- 
tions at  Pompeii  liave  revealed  concrete  walls  covered  with 
niarhle  slalis.  Many  of  the  finest  works  in  France  completed 
during  the  last  half  of  tlic  eighteenth  and  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  centuries,  are  nuide  of  conci'ete  faced  with  stone. 
A  comparatively  recent  bridge  at  Soissons  is  similarly  faced  with 
separately  mouUleil  concrete  slal)s.  In  America,  some  of  the 
finest  and  latest  manufacturing  buildings  have  exterior  con- 
crete frames  veneered  with  brick  or  previously  moulded  slabs  of 
concrete.  Good  effects  are  produced  by  a  judicious  use  of 
brick  in  different  colors  and  by  the  use  of  colored  tiles.  Decora- 
tive work  when  used,  should  be  concentrated  in  certain  places 
to  contrast  with  ailjuining  unbroken  areas.  Colored  tiles  can 
be  cast  with  the  concrete  in  large  slabs  and  built  in  with  the 
walls,  or  a  space  may  be  i)anolcd  out  of  the  walls  with  ^ornis,  anil 
the  tiles  set  in  afterward.  Concrete  blocks  or  artificial  stones 
are  used  more  for  s(jlid  work  than  for  surface  facing,  and  are 
dcscribe(l  elsewhere. 

Plastering. — Plastering  on  concrete  walls  is  not  recommended, 
fot  it  is  stable  only  when  moisture  cannot  reach  the  under  surface 
and  it  rarely  lasts  more  than  ten  to  fifteen  years  even  under 
favorable  conditions.  Hefore  applying  plaster,  the  concrete 
sliotdd  be  rough  and  dean,  without  scale  or  dust,  and  should 
be  wet  to  prevent  extracting  water  fnjm  the  mortar  before  it 
hardens.  Tlie  applied  matcial  should  be  pressed  and  worked 
well  against  the  under  surface  to  avoid  open  places  or  cavities 
wliich  would  (juickly  break. 

A  finish  of  comparatively  recent  use,  known  as  Stonekote, 
is  a  mixture  of  Portland  cement  and  white  sand  or  white  quartz 
containing  no  lime.  In  hardness,  st length  and  durability  it 
is  nearly  erpud  to  natural  stone  and  can  be  procm-ed  in  several 
colors.  Three  coats  of  this  mixture  are  recommended  for  use 
on  sheathing  and  metal  lath,  with  100  lb.  to  21  j-d.  of  surface, 
and  one  finish  coat  on  brick,  concrete,  or  concrete  blocks.  It 
can  ])e  aj)i)lied  on  a  low-priced  concrete  wall,  making  a  rough 
cast  surface  of  the  desired  color,  which  may  be  waterproofed. 
Stonekote  isi  slow  in  setting,  but  covers  all  joints  if  applied  by 


..-'••^ffS.   vjK-.'r">'^.''Hgj    ' 


COSCRKrE  SURFACE  FIXISH  ui 

Xalunil  color.  .,., 

ColoHMl  sc^co,,,!  coat T,^  """  '"■■  ''"'"'«  >'"^'' 

niuto  s,K,.„n,l  coat    t  "'"  '  ''*""  "'""^''  >-"^'l 

RouKh  cast,  na*„ral •'  -  '""  '  '"'■■  **''"'"■*"  >"^'' 

Rough  cast,  clorcl t  '"""  •'^■''  "1""^"  J'"^'' 

W  I.ito  on  natural  l.aso t  '  '"^^  "'""''''  '''"■'' 

I.i«ht  colors  on  whito  l.a^.. 4  ,"  ''^''  '''""'*■  ^'"''^ 

"■ ' •>-  cents  j)or  s.pmre  vanl 

Schface  Rkmovai, 

tains    .ndnv^.!  '"f  "'    'l'  '"'^"■^^  ^^^'^"•^«'^^''  -''•<•'>  it  -n- 
a  ns    and  never  less  ti.an  1  i,,.     It  sh..ul,l  he  fairlv  wet  when 

taJ^Sf  :;''"'"7'  r'"  '"  "''^'■^^^  -^^'-  l'>-  the  use  of  eer- 
.ft,.;/  '''  ''''^-''"ti'W  unless  tJ.o  surface  is  tre^ited 

f  P  rock  „  '     "'•"'"'"  "^  ^^'"'^^  ^"'^'  '•'-■'<   n^arl.re  ,.r 

1  inel  ^  '  ":  '  l'"""'  "•"^'••■"''  ^^''^'^  ''"^^''ter  effects  are 
ol.tained  from  ,.„l„red  n.arhles  „r  re.l  -rr-mite  (Itlu,-  1  ! 
n.Uena.  s,.h  as  l.roken  ..rick,  hurnt  ch.y  .;Xn.a?t  L^:!/ 
n"xed  :  u  ;'u'  <;'n''o  crushed  to  any  desired  si.e^^^S 
fi  nes  ""■  '"^^^"  "'  ^'"'  ^'^•^'^'"-  - 1'-  «-se  of  beauty  and 


■mSM¥T79^7^ 


-■:i.= 


'iTi-'.  ■-■ 


■k^'k-'a 


1.32     KSdISEKRISC  '■/•'  .S7/0/',S'  AM)  FACTORIES 

Xatiiral  ('(iloiiiij.  is  ]>i(T(>r"M  to  artificial,  and  yot  when 
colored  ajifireuati*  is  'lo".  'i'>iainal)le,  pi};nicnt.s  may  ho  used. 
Mineral  ])ij;iiieiits  oiily  a  e  '-i'', .hi,'.  l)ecai!se  vcjictahlc  colors 
iire  not  ])(Miiiaii(  nt.  J{ed,  yclloAv,  hlue  and  black  arc  the  hest. 
Some  conunon  pigments  with  their  approximate  cost  arc  given 
inTal.Ie  VIII. 

liiifT  color  made  from  yellow  ochre  and  mineral  red  is  afavorite, 
and  a  mixlure  of  carl)on  liiack  with  red  iron  ore  gives  a  dull  red, 
while  the  addition  of  lamp  Idack  to  the  last  produces  a  darker 
effect.  Lime  is  generally  used  for  whitening.  As  the  presence 
of  pigments  tends  to  lessen  the  strength  of  concrete,  the  amount 
of  pigment  should  he  limited  to  5  per  cent,  by  weight  of  the 
cement,  or  5  Hi.  ])(>r  bag.  A  less  amount  than  this  will  give 
lighter  shades.  The  cement  aggregate  and  pigment  should  all 
be  mixed  together  dry,  and  it  should  be  observed  that  mortar 
when  wet  is  darker  than  when  it  is  dry. 

TABLE  VIII 


(.'(ilor  (Ic^iicil 


Cimmicrciiil 

ii:iiii('s  iif  colors 

for  use  ill 

ClMllCIlt 


Approxiniato] 

prices  per  founds  color  ro- 

poiiiid  in  1(K>-  (|iiir«'(l  for  each 

111.  lots  for  lniK  of  CL'inont  to 
liiKli-)ir:i(lc    j  secure 

colors 


Lit.'1'.t       .Mciiiuin 
.sIkicI(!        .shade 


!  <  I  c  r  Ml  ;i  II  t  o  w  II 
iMiiiplilack. 

(iriiys,  Mu('-l>l:i(k  Carlion  l)la(^k 

ami  lilack.  Black  oxide   of 
I         manganese. 

Blue  sliaile t'lirainariiie  lilue.  . 

B  r  o  w  n  i  s  Ii-hmI  to  lied  oxiile  of  iron 

dull  l)rick  red. 

Brif;lit    red   to    vi-r-  -Mineral  Tiirki-y  reil 

niilioti. 

Hed     sandstone     to  Indian  red 

pwrpli-ii-red. 

Brown      to      red-  Metallic      1>  r  o  w  n 

dish-brown.  io\i(l(\i. 

BntT,    colonial   tint.  Yellow  ocher 

and  ypiiow. 


H)  cents 

H  cents 
(')  cents 

IS  cents 
H  cents 

1")  cent.s 

1(1  cents 

4  cents 

('(  cents 


1 
2 

10 
10 

10 

10 

10 

10 


CONCRETE  SURFACE  FINISH  133 

Before  startinR  construction,  it  is  worth  while  experimentini' 
on  sa.„,,les  to  get  the  coh,r  effect  and  surface  finish  that  is  saf  is- 
fyiUK,  and  when  proportions  have  been  established,  they  shouici 
be  ch,seiy  adJiered  to,  as  slight  variation  in  successive  batche. 
o  concrete  may  give  shades  that  are  quite  noticeably  different' 
The  proportion  should,  therefore,  l,e  measured,  and  not  simplJ 
g^iuged  by  the  number  of  barrows.  Coloring  with  pigments 
will  usually  cost  from  \  to  2  cents  per  scpiare  foot 

Removal  of  Surface—Defects  and  invgularities  on  concrete 
surfaces  can  be  removed  by  the  sand  blast,  or  by  tooling,  rubbing, 
p.ckmg,  scrubbing  or  etching  with  acid.  The  objection  to  any 
kind  of  surface  removal  is  the  loss  of  the  outer  and  hardest  part 
of  the  mortar,  which  removal  may  allow  water  to  enter  RouHi- 
omng  the  surface  by  any  of  the  processes  just  mentioned  cau'iies 
the  building  to  more  easily  collect  grime  and  dust,  but  as  con- 
crete buildings  are  usually  of  a  smoky  gray,  such  dust  collection 
may  not  be  very  noticeable. 

Sand  Blasting.-This  method   is  economical   only  for  lar.re 
areas.     It  cannot  be  undortaken  in  less  than  ten  days  or  two 
weeks  after  the  concrete  is  placed,  and  a  longer  time  of  about  a 
month  IS  often  preferable.     For  this  reason,  it  is  suitable  for  the 
underside  of  girders  or  arches  where  forms  supporting  weight 
cannot  be  removed  in  less  than  thirty  days.     Air  should  have  a 
pressure  at  the  nozzle  of  50  to  80  lb.  per  square  inch,  and  the 
nozzle  shc.uld  not  be  larger  than  i  to  {  in.  diameter,  for  if  greater, 
t  H>  jet  of  sand  cannot  be  concentrated  on  small  defects      Sand 
should  be  clean  and  hard  and  of  a  size  to  pass  a  x\o    12  screen 
for  ;-in.  nozzle,  and  a  No.  8  screen  for  1-in.  nozzle.     The  cutting 
action  of  the  sand  removes  the  surface  film  of  cement  at  a  cost  of 
••ilx.ut  3  cents  per  scjuare  foot.     Work  can  usuallv  be  done  by  or 
witli  apparatus  from,  some  company  of  building  cleaners       ' 

Toohng.-Tooling,  to  remove  about  ^  in.  from  the  surface 
may  be  done  either  by  hand  or  pneumatir  process,  hand  work 
iH-.ng  cheaper  for  small  jobs,  and  especially  for  low  walls  where 
scaffol.  ing  ,s  „ot  needed.  For  large  areas,  high  above  groun.l 
air  tools  will  probably  be  cheaper  than  hand  work  by  30  to  50 
per  cent.  The  concrete  should  be  two  to  three  weeks  old  and 
tlie  best  results  are  usually  obtained  from  a  fine  aggregate  If 
arge  stones  he  near  the  surface,  the  concrete  should  bo  at  least 
two  months  old,  to  prevent  stones  from  being  knocked  out  by 
the  tools  instead  of  being  cut.     One  laborer  will  dress  from  50 


l.Tl     KXdfXEKRlXn  OF  SHOPS  .WD  FACTORIES 

t<i  KM)  .'|.  ft.  pel'  (l,i\-  wliiii  ((iiuTctc  li:is  not  Ik'cii  jiljicfd  longer 
tluiii  two  to  three  weeks,  tlie  co.-il  for  liarul  work  l)eing  from 
1,'  to  \i\  fi'iiis  per  .scjiiiire  foot,  not  iiic.iiiiiii^  stafiiii^,  or  a.s 
low  as  1\  ceiifs  jier  K(iuaro  foot  when  labor  wages  do  not 
exceed  !?!..")()  jxt  djiy.  Hu.<h  haninieriiig  can  he  done  ([uite  a.s 
well  by  conmioii  as  liy  .^killed  lalior,  though  in  some  cases,  the 
iietter  grade  of  lal)or  has  been  used  in  accordance  with  regiiiu- 


V.'.  V.   'J.-T  ,      v<  .".'*  ..••'•'' 

\  ■:'>■.:•■' K'i '■••■'.'*'■■  ■•■^•''■': 


,^.VT>.'.„,-.: 


MiwaMagggMiaHcaBag|!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiittiiiiiiiiiiiiiit 


I'Ki.  72. 


tions  of  labor  unions  and  fre(iuently  on  government  work. 
Tooling  such  as  generally  useil  on  Jiedford  or  similar  stone  can 
be  done  to  the  best  advantage  when  the  concrete  lias  a  fine 
mortar  face  and  has  thoroughly  hardened.  In  this  case  experi- 
enced stone  cutters  are  needetl.  Machine  work  with  pneu- 
matic tools  can  be  done  at  the  rate  of  liOO  to  (iOO  super- 
ficial feet  per  mar.  i)er  day,  at  a  cost  on  large  areas  of  1\  to 
;i  cents  i)er  .S(|uare  foot,  witli  labor  wages  at  $2  per  day. 
Those  who  liave  done  this  kind  of  work  extensively,  recommend 
the  more  liberal  allowance  of  3  to  4  cents  per  stjuare  foot  for 
green  surfaces  and  o  to  10  cents  per  square  foot  for  hard  surfaces. 
Some  tooling  clfects  are  shown  in  Tig.  72. 


CONCRETE  SURFACE  FIMSII  135 

Rubbing.— In  this  method,  the  Purfacc  is  rubbed  or  ground 
with  u  brick,  a  bh.ck  of  siindstone  or  carliorundum,  after  the 
forma  have  been  removed,  wiiich  should  be  between  six  and 
forty-eight  hours  after  phicing.  To  facilitate  grinding,  a  wash 
of  cement  and  sand  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  2,  should  be 
used  between  the  wall  and  the  grinding  stone.  As  lather  forms 
it  may  bo  washed  off,  and  the  grinding  process  continued  after 
applying  more  cement  and  sand.  Wlien  rubbing  is  done  with 
carborundum,  a  No.  10  stone  is  most  appropriate  for  the  first 
application,  but  the  finishing  should  be  done  with  a  No.  30. 
This  method  is  most  suitable  for  fine  mortar  facing  and  when 
soft  stone  such  as  marble  is  used  in  the  aggregate,  the  process 
being  similar  to  that  used  in  finishing  a  Terrazza  floor.  The 
cost  should  not  exceed  U  to  2  cents  per  sciuare  foot,  or  4 
cents,  with  carborundum.  A  variation  of  this  method'  is  to 
cut  the  surface  with  sand  rubbed  on  with  a  plasterer's  float, 
using  plenty  of  water,  in  which  case  a  laborer  can  wash  and 
clean  100  sq.  ft.  per  hour. 

Picking.— This  work  can  be  done  either  by  hand  or  pneumatic 
tools.  Within  three  or  four  days  after  the  concrete  is  placed  a 
lal)orer  can  do  four  times  as  great  an  area  as  lie  could  when  con- 
crete is  only  two  weeks  old.     The  costs  are,  therefore,  as  follows: 

Picking  concrete 0  t,.  24  hours  old 1  cent  per  square  foot 

Picking  concrete  2  days  old 2  to  3  cents  per  «,uare  foot. 

Picking  makes  a  rougher  and  coarser  surface  when  green  than 
when  dry,  and  experience  shows  that  one  man  with  air  tools  can 
dross  400  to  500  sq.  ft.  per  day. 

Scrubbing.— In  this  method,  while  the  concrete  is  still  green 
the  surface  is  washed  with  stitf  brushes  to  remove  enough  of  the 
cement  that  the  stone  and  aggregate  may  be  plainly  e.xposed. 
Aggregate  in  the  facing  mixture,  v.hich  should  be  at  least  1 
in.  thick,  may  consist  of  pebbles,  fine-crushed  granite,  trap 
rock,  broken  brick,  or  a  mixture  of  several  kinds  of  stone  and 
these  materials  can  be  plainly  exposed  when  a  little  of  the  cement 
is  washed  away  (Figs.  73-78).  The  rate  at  which  work  can 
be  done  will  depend  largely  on  the  hardness  which  the  concrete 
has  attained.  For  different  climatic  conditions,  the  time  of 
form  removal  should  be  as  follows: 

In  hot  weather,  remove  forms  in 24  hours. 

In  cooler  weather,  remove  forms  in 2  to  3  days. 

In  cold  and  wet  weather,  remove  forms  in. 6  to  7  days. 


136     ENGINEERING  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


■.■'^i>^;v■^;• 


■■..•V 


Fig.  73.— Scrubbed  and  etched  surface  of  1-3  fine  sand  mortar. 


Fig.  74.-Scrubbed  and  etcl.cd  surface  of  1-3  coarse  sand  mortar. 


I'lG.  7.5— Scrubbed  and  etched  surface  of  1-3  smiH  pebbli 


e  mixture. 


:i«v,.^^r^'2?i-  ^:kM~»sm: 


CONCRETE  rvuface  pjslw 


F.a.  7fl.-Scrubbed  and  etched  surface  of  l-oj  „,«tu„,  of  fine  granite 

screenings. 


l-io.   77.-Scrubbed  and  etched  surface  of   l-oj   n^.ture  coarM.  granite 

screenings. 


Fio.  78.— Scrubbed  and  etchtd  surface  of  1-; 


2i  tnixture  of  coarse  pebble 


i:{H    i-:\ai.\i:i:f{i\<!  of  shops  wd  f.wtohies 


'I'lio  ahovo  rule  applic.-*  only  to  faco  work,  wIutc  llu-  forms  Mup- 
port  111)  ilcail  loiiil.  I'lultr  Im'uih-  r  tloors  tlicy  imwt  usiuilly 
rciuaiii  ill  place  for  at  Ica.^t  a  iiiumii.  Wlu'ii  tin's  work  is  .:  rie 
with  cenitMi!  at  tlif  rij;lit  dcKrc*'  of  hanliK'ss,  u  man  can  wu*^!  out 
«'riou)ili  nf  the  -snrfac*'  with  tlirtc  'r  fuui  j .a.ssugcw  of  n  <ii  mary 
kitclii'ii  scnil  I'iii;;  luu.sh.  Tin'  work  'niKst  not  be  undortakon 
too  soon,  fur  .-.loni'S  niif,'ht  tlu'ii  ■■■  tiisjucatcii  leaving  unsigiitly 
hoii'H,  and  "!i  tlie  otiier  haiul,  i.  Iclavi'd  too  long  tho  work  is 
HJowcr  and  more  cxpcnsivi  In  sciiic  t  art-H  it  can  he  done  in 
i'ij;ht  to  ten  hours  after  the  i  iticrefe  is  j  iced,  but  when  delayed 
♦  ooloiiR,  wire  bni.slies  may  U  needed. 

By  this  iiieihod  (piite  a  rii't'.  of  effects  can  I  prouu'ed  by 
1!  inK  ~  'lie  of  ditTcrent  si/c  ami  ( '>lor,  and  the  resn  is  a  tn.'hfii! 
expre.s-.ion  of  coiKTete  eon  ■ruction  exhibiting  :  it  does,  he 
\<rv  make-up  of  the  inatenal.  Tli<'  elf>ct  is  imprc  "d  if.  .itter 
Hc  ilibin^.  the  .surface  is  waslied  with  hydroeiiloric  :  lid  nii.\-  d 
wiili  five  times  its  volume  of  water.  This  eleuns  th(  agpvf  gate 
and  brightens  tlic  color,  but  the  face  must  afterward  bo  ihor- 
ouf:!  'v  washi  d  with  :.  ho.se  to  avoid  future  diseolorat  Any 

kind  of  liinestoiic  "=  marble  wlii'di  would  be  aitackt  v  aci  ' 
eaniiot  be  used  when  etchiiif:  is  intend*'!,  i'o  rns  Ni,Muld  1*; 
taken  down  only  fust  enough  to  ki  i  an  h.  ur's  Tk  ahead  of 
the  scrubbers,  ami  "H  vertical  siirfans  this  can  l)i  ..iranjreu  by 
setting  'he  studs  oi  t  frui  i  the  forms  on  i. locks,  which  ar>  i.suy 
knocked  '  it  as  needed,  allowing  \hb  lioards  to  be  l.iken  ay. 
When  doi  •■  at  the  vv^\\i  tin.e.  a  man  cai  s,  rub  i;H)  •[.  i  per 
hour,  though  it  i,  take  him  two  i  ti\  •  times  .s  i  mg  if  the 
work  is  <lelayed  until  ili.   cement  is  hard. 

An  ■•iTect  soiui what  similar  h^  'tia'   ([<      '-i].!'!! 
obtained     >  pbistering  tli"  iiiM'^         -of  i.. 
\sith  stiff  (!:i\    I    in.  thicr..   aiui  e      -eddii^ 
of  penhles  of  r.iniiom  size.  Liid  (■!•        loget 
poured  in  and   tami)ed  against   '         fiu  iuii. 
lunus,  the  forms  arc  removed  u  <•  ■  'ay 

brusli  and  ho-e,  leaving:  the  jx'i     .(  -  t  .pose- 
l^art  of  the  concrete  wail. 

Acid  Etching. — The  <  \tcrior  filn  f  cement  <>!;  'onirete  wall; 
nuiy  also  l)e  n  noved  wliolly  l)y  ac  tc  Jiing.  but  the  acid  must 
lie  used  witl  are,  f..r  if  not  thoroi  lily  wa.-i  i  off  afterward, 
diecoloratio!:  '1  de\f!op.  ^\■|i:  p.  ti^is  n!-!M-f.  intended,  the 
aggregate  m        .  ont     u  no  limest    !     or  as  these  would 


ove.       '1  be 

"orui  .    ".rds 

i  tiie  clay  !■,        er 

Co;        te  i.       .en 

After  '.    enty-aiur 

shed  aw   ;,  with 

wl.    h  lire  now 


COSruETE  SUHl  Mh'  FI.MSIl  ];{<) 

ho  attacked  n.*J  .l,.,„n.pos.   <  I,y  .ui.I.     Kith,.,-  J,v,i  ...Mori^    .t 
Milphuric  a.Kl  ,n..y  I).    us<.,i.  tlimmh  the  former  i.  „Miallv  ptv- 
feri-,1,  un.i  tJ.-    -tror.Kth  ^vill  .l.perul  upon  the  a^o  of  the  coni- 
eoii.rote  is  only  two  days  old,  the  arid  niay  Ik; 
•r  .SIX  time«  its  •,  „iu,„e  „f  water,  but  when'      ■. 
id  '     ,11.  i  lie  twi.-e  iis  stronjr.      At   tlu-  er        ,f 
ho  mixture  shouhl  (onit.ine  one  j).irt  of  acid  .v    i, 
'  water,     iid  'lie  liquid  may  he  allowed  to  remain  on  the 
.   f'  r  th   'ty      inutcs  before  wa.shin«;  it  awav.     '   .nrrete 
•'^    ie  wiiJi  while  sa...t  and  fine  eru.shed  stone,  after  bei.  -  ettdicd 
^  way  to  remove  fh-  outer  film  of  cement,  give.i  the  appear- 
.tBf'>  of  fine  fini-hed  whi  -  stone. 


po.-iii  ion. 

dilui 

Wee  I 

thin 

two 

sun 


Wli 
d  with  hv. 
old,  tlie 
dav! 


niAPTKR  X 

COST  OF  REINFORCED  CONCRETE    BUILDINGS' 

The  most  recent  ro])()rt  of  specific  costs  of  reinforced  concrete 
factory  buildinjis  is  that  presented  at  tlie  convention  of  the 
National  Association  of  Cement  Users  in  Alarcli,  1U12.  Tliese 
custs  in  (h'tail  are  jiiven  in  Tabic  IX. 

From  this  table  it  appeai-s  that  the  average  cost  of  single- 
story  buildinfis  with  saw-tooth  roof  is  .$1.77  per  square  foot"^  of 

" ■  '^"•'•*^''   ^'f""*-^  Pt'i-  t-'i'-Ji'  foot  of  contents,  while  the  averafie 

cost  of  biiildinfrs  with  mou;  than  one  story  is  SI. 12  per  scpiare 
foot  or  8.7  cents  j)er  cubic  foot  of  contents.  These  fi^-ures  are  on 
the  complete  building  with  plumbin-  but  they  do  not  include 
heatm-r,  li-htii,n,  sprinkler  .system,  elevators  or  power  eijuip- 
ment.  The  s.piare  foot  j)rices  were  obtained  by  dividing  the 
total  cost  of  the  buildin-  by  the  ixiiiriv<r,ite  floor  area  including 
the  basement,  but  not  indudinjr  the  roof. 

Another  report  on  the  cost  of  reinforced  concrete  buildinfrs 
read  m  1!KW  before  the  Xational  .\s.s„ciation  of  Cement  User.s 
liivvs  the  specific  costs  of  a  numi)er  of  buildin-s,  which  are 
shown  in  Table  .\'. 

From  this  table  it  appears  that  the  avera-ie  cost  of  twenty-one 
l»iiidin-s  was  .^1.72  j)er  s.piare  foot  of  floor  area,  and  V.i.S  cents 
I)er  cui)ic  foot  of  contents.  This  table  is  followed  bv  a  detailed 
cost  analysis  of  forms  and  concrete  in  place,  whiVh  is  repro- 
duced in  Table  XI. 

It  appears,  tiierefore,  tliat  the  averaf,'e  co.st  of  forms  per  square 
foot,  IS  for  colunu.s  ]:}  cents,  beam  floors  11.0  cents,  slab  floors 
11.1  cents,  .slabs  only  between  steel  beams !)..",  cents,  walls  above 
;:round  12.8  c.-nts,  foundations  10.;{  c.nts,  ami  footin^is  !).3  cent.s 

A  sululivisiun  fiivin-  the  iu-rcentaK(>  cost  of  concrete,  steel'. 
laltor  and  forms  is  as  follows: 

Concrete,  cM)st.s  HI  |ht  cent,  of  (!».  totiil 

Sl.i-f.         costs  17  per  (M-nt.  of  tlic  total 

I.al.or.        ,,.Ms  .'fl   per  <',.|it.  of  (lie  total 

rorriis,       costs  :i:i  |"-r  cent,  of  the  total 

Total IOC,  percent. 

'  II.  (i.  lyrreli,  in  hiiyiiarruiy  .\h„j,izi„f,  Jnv.o,  1012. 

140 


COST 


OF  UEINh^OItCED  CONCRETE  BUILDINGS  141 


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142     ENGINEERIXG  OF  SHOPS  AXD  FACTORIES 
TAUi.i:  X.— COST  OF  C()\ciii:ri:  nun.niMis 


Typo 


Place 


T()lal 

(•list  llf 

I.Mk, 


Store I  .Viishiiii . 

II  .spilal ^  Huffali).  .  . 

IXIicc Kvercit 

Cold  siiirc- 1  Hostori 

Factory ;  Chfl«ra 

Factory [  Cambridge. . 

Storchoii-,(> I  Saco 

Factory ,      ;  rrovidence. . 

(Jffioe j  Jarksoii villi- 

Factory |  Cairihri.lKe.  . 

Factory i  Caiiil)rid)?e. . 


(141 

60 
61 

200 
19, 

Ml, 
"6, 
01, 

1.16, 

l.t.i, 


Factory. 


Cainhridge.  . 


Office 'Portland- 181 

Factory |  (irwTifiel.l.    . . 

Factory ;  SouthbridKC  . 

Factory Attldioro.  .  . 

('■arage I  Brooklimv  .  . 

Filter j  Lawrence.  .  -  . 

Fire  .sln'iiri I  Weston 

01)servui,.ry '  .Miliim 

Filler Lawrence. 


,S00 
,646 
Ojl 
2U2 
,.")29 
,700 
,.-i77 
,880 
,061 
,001 
23,.'>..2 


12 

■41 

39. 

10. 

1!1,' 
6, 
3, 

20, 


194 
771 
652 
S.TO 
436 
,993 
57 
62,^ 
078 


Volume 

in  cubic 

(eet 


1,711,100 
703,092 
406,780 

l,.'>3.-j,000 
212,1(X) 

1 ,329,868 

1,110,000 

1 ,3,S0,.T(XJ 
693,840 
10.1,6{X) 

1,211,361 
180,000 

1 ,36.->,800 

112,410 

716,674 

312,000 

I.W.IQS 

1 19,2,jO 

44,20r, 

9,731 

.50,991 


Floor 
area,  sii 

ft. 


168,090 

$.O.S27 

57,6.-,l 

.0863 

j       39,840 

.124 

1, 54 ,000 

.13 

1.5,(HX) 

.091 

106,000 

.107 

116,000 

.06.S5 

90,240 

.067 

t       56,552 

.197 

8,8(X) 

.121 

75,004 

.062."> 

lfl,.t94 

.129 

00,174 

.  133 

7,.519 

.lit 

49,516 

.060 

21.!»60 

.127 

10,806 

.085 

19,208 

.134 

2,982 

.1.53 

657 

.373 

5,213 

.333 

Cftsts 


Cu.  tt.  .  Sq.  ft. 


$.84 
1.05 
1..515 
1.30 
1.28 
1.3,35 
..575 
1.01 
2.42 
1.485 
1.01 
1.42 
2.00 
1.70 

.;k)2 

1.60 
1.23 
1.04 
2.26 
5.45 
3.82 


.\veraKe. 


Tlii.s  analy.sis  u.ssumo.s  that  niaterial.s  can  ho  dclivorc'  at  the 
sito  (III  cars,  and  tliat  form  hiniher  can  ho  u.sed  twico  .\.s  two- 
thirds  of  till'  total  co.st  is  for  lahor  and  forms,  and  one-third  for 
the  forms  alono,  it  is  oconomi'-.'  i  v.liorc  time  will  permit,  to  use 
forms  more  than  twico,  or  as  often  as  t ho  luml)or  will  last.  Repe- 
tition and  duplication  of  forni.s  are,  in  fact,  the  greatest  factors 
in  c()st  reduction,  and  the  de-sign  .should  he  so  made  that  this  in 
possii)le.  The  average  cost  of  forms  ohtained  from  a  different 
sot  of  records  from  those  given  ahovo,  is,  for  floors  with  heams, 
girders  and  .slal)s,  10  cent.s  per  sciuarc  foot,  and  for  flat  slah 
flt)ors  without  l)oams  7  cents  per  square  foot.  The  correspond- 
ing cost  of  column  forms  is  Vi  cents  per  .stiuare  foot.  The  cost 
of  hending  and  placing  roinforcing  stool,  including  wire  me.sh  in 
slahs,  varies  from  $5  to  817  per  ton,  the  average  hein;  u  -nit 
?10  per  ton. 

A  reinforced  concrete  Ijuilding  designed  hy  the  writoi  ,  "i  .;. 
wide  and  88  ft.  long  with  S(>von  .stories  and  hasoment  and  .")0v.,0()0 
ou.  ft.  of  contents,  cost  Sl.l.l  per  .siniaro  foot  of  floor,  or  9.1  cents 
per  cubic  I'uol  uf  contenis.     The  floors  were  proportioned  for 


COST  OF  REINFORCED  CONCRETE  BUILDINGS  143 


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Ml      KSaiXKERlSd  OF  SIIOl'S  AXD  FACTORIES 

:i  total  load  of  200  11>.  jior  s<niar('  foot,  and  the  prices  given  above 
iiicludc  cxcavatioii,  foundations,  wails,  folunuis,  floors,  framing, 
roolin^,  windows,  duors  and  stairs,  hut  do  not  include  plumbing, 
i-lcvators,  luatin^-,  lijiliting,  or  partitions. 

Concrete  factory  biuldinjis  from  one  to  five  stories  in  iieight 
and  about  .'lO  ft.  wide,  will  have  miiunmm  costs  about  as  follows: 


Cost  per  .s<niiire  Cdst  in  cents  pet 

foot  of  tloor  area      cubic  foot  of  contents 


'■'>.  \  ;in<!  .".  stories $1   on  to  ?1  .  10 

-  stories 1   (Ti  to     11.") 

1  -"too '<        l.K)  to    1  -JO 


7.5  to  8.5 
8.0  to  9.0 
8.5  to  10.0 


These  jirices  do  nut  include  partitions,  plumlting,  heating, 
lighting  or  elevators.  In  the  South  or  in  country  districts  where 
laiior  is  dieajjer,  the  unit  costs  may  occasionally  be  10  to  15  per 
cent.  le:..  Hut  when  buildings  are  erect(>d  by  contractors  who 
are  only  occasioiudly  employed  on  such  work,  the  cost  is  likely 
to  e.\ceed  tiie  niiiiiniuiu  prices  given  above,  and  amount  to  $1.30 
per  .siiuaie  foot  for  buildings  of  three  stories  or  more,  to  IJl.CO 
per  s<iuare  foot  for  tiiosc  with  oidy  single  stories.  Concrete 
framing,  including  slabs,  beams  and  columns  only,  without  walls, 
costs  from  4")  to  (..")  cents  per  s(iuare  foot  of  floor  area. 

The  cost  of  reinforced  concrete  buildings  from  numerous 
designs  and  estimates  made  by  the  writer  (.see  Tyrrell's  Mill 
Building.-;)  varies  from  0  to  12  cents  per  cubic  foot  for  factories 
and  warehouse's,  and  from  10  to  1(1  cents  per  cubic  foot  for  stores 
and  loft  buildings.  These  are  based  upon  the  use  of  complete 
concrete  frames  and  exterior  curtain  walls,  without  power,  heat, 
light,  elevators  or  interior  finish.  Buildings  with  concrete  .slabs 
and  L>-in.  cement  finish,  costing  .SI. 2.")  per  sepiare  foot,  would 
witli  cement  finish  on  2-in.  cinder  concrete,  cost  about  SI. 30  per 
scjuare  foot,  and  S1.3.J  per  sq.  ft.  with  ;  maple  on  2-in.  cinder 
concrete,  with  a  concrete  floor  .slab  in  each  case.  (Sec  Con- 
crete Floors.) 

A  two-story  reinforced  concrete  factory  building  100  ft.  square, 
at  Walkerviile,  Ontario,  with  (i-in.  curtain  walls,  and  columns 
K;  ft.  -axkxvX  in  lioth  directions,  cu.^i  conq^lete,  including  concrete, 
rods  and  forms,  •'JIO.SS  per  cubic  yard  of  concrete  in  place. 


^..  r?:3>^  V  «Ji&'W^'^-^iF^<$<rFiaBii^^Mf«'^^s^£ii^»^0eeE^»r«R 


^iummamr^  'iXiJiim 


COST  OF  REISFOHCED  VOXCHFTE  IWJLDIMIS  145 

So,no  rontrac.rs  use  tl.c  followinfi  molhod  of  estimating  the 
rost  pcT  eulnc  yard  of  all  material  i„  place.  First  find  the  cost. 
.lehvere.1  at  the  s.te,  of  the  cen.ent,  sand  and  stone  re<,uired 
for  a  cuh.c  yard  of  concrete,  and  to  this  add  .?5  per  yard  for  the 
remforc.ng  metal.  The  sum  of  these  two  costs  is  assumed  to 
n-present  one-half  of  the  total  per  cubic  yard  of  the  materials 
H  phice  Ihe  lal.or  of  mixm^  and  placing  the  concrete  a..d  of 
placmg  the  steel  will  add  one-third  to  the  above  sum,  and  the 
n'atenal  and  labor  on  forms  will  be  two-thirds  more  The 
resultmg  cost  does  not  include  contractor's  profit  or  plant  de- 

mav  be  $1  to  8J  per  cubic  yard  additional 

A  considerable  saving  in  the  cost  of  reinforced  concrete  build- 
ings can  be  affected  by  omitting  the  floor  slabs,  and  using  a 
frame  of  columns  and  girders  only,  with  a  double  counse  of  boards 
t'Upported  on  reinforcetl  concrete 
beams  (Fig.  79).  As  previously 
noted,  a  four-stoiy  office  build- 
ing of  this  kind  at  Yoyv  Kiver, 
Mass.,  a  large  part  of  the  curtain 


^Ci-rt^r  Coner*]^ 

If iJvlsitiViJy 

fik 

Fic.   7!t.— l{oinf„rr,M|  ,  nncrclo  l.can.s  with  wood  floor 


^alls  being  glass,  cost  with  the  foun.la.ions,  walls,  roof  and 
floors  only  (.:]  cits  per  s.p.are  foot  of  floor  area,  or  41  c^ts 
per  cubic  foot  o  contents.  Indu.ling  lighting,  he;ting,-toilet; 
and  partitions  the  cost  was  S1.30  per  square  foot  of  f^oor,  or 
9  2  cents  per  cubic  foot.  Another  similar  five-storv  building  in 
the  same  state.  oO  by  300,  cost  only  7.G  cents  per  cubic  foot 

Economy  often  ivsults  also  from  the  use  of  separatelv  moulded 
floor  members,  a  good  example  being  the  cold  storage  warehou.se 

ri^-s  h  .:r'"\^-«7'"'  ''  ''""■"''"'•  ^^''"'  ^"^''''"^  -"«  --  «to- 
n<s  lugl    and  <8  feet  s.piare,  and  concrete  floors  of  the  \\  atson 

olunns      The  floors  alone  cost  20.5  cents  per  square  foot,  and 

ou.r^'40""""  ,,a  fircproofing  21.5  cents  additional, 'or  a 

total  of  42  cents  per  s-juare  foot  of  floor  area,  and  4  cents  per 


■rjgg.jMgBprwiiMBt-jg^gig^saij'vg'gpr^^ .fMaii  - 


140     EXGINKERISG  OF  SHOPS  A.\D  FACTORIES 


cubic  foot  of  volume  for  both  floor  and  frame.  Including  the 
gravel  roof,  curtiiin  walls  and  stairs,  the  cost  was  01  cents  per 
square  foot,  or  5.7  cents  per  cubic  foot,  the  granolithic  floor 
finish,  and  wall  plastering  not  being  included.  In  determining 
these  unit  prices,  the  area  of  six  floors  and  basement,  was  taken 
inside  of  the  exterior  walls. 

Much  of  the  published  information  in  reference  to  the  cost  of 
concrete  work  is  based  upon  the  records  of  well-organized  build- 
ing companies  who  are  ecjuipped  to  do  such  work  in  the  most 
economical  manner.  Other  builders  with  less  facilities  should 
therefore  be  liberal  in  their  estimates.  Some  contractors  when 
estimating  use  a  cost  \mit  for  reinforced  concrete  of  $1  per  cul)ic 
foot  or  .^-'T  per  cubic  yard  for  all  material  in  place,  which  is  no 
doul)t  large  enough  for  even  inexperienced  builders,  (For  other 
costs,  sec  "  Keinforcetl  Concrete  Floors.") 


CB'—r^R  XI 

COMPARATIVE  COST  OF  \  REINFORCED  CONCRETE  AND 

STEKL    -JILDINGS 

AVl.erc   wooden    huildinjurs    are   r,-f,  ,ml    to    in    the   followinK 
co.npansons,  only  mill  construction  „f  tlw  sl.nv  burninf;  type  is 
con.suk.riHi,    for   nearly   all    modern    indnstrial    enterprise,    are 
housed  m  l.uildinjrs   that  are  to  some  extent   fireproof      The 
quest  lor.  may  r.-asonahly  be  asked  here,  uhat  constitutes  a  fireproof 
buildm-:      XotJiinp  is  more  firepr„„f  than  a  furnace  ami  vet  the 
decomposition  of  its  contents   l.y  fin-   is   its   chief  use    'These 
buildmfts  must,  therefore,  not  only  l.e  made  of  non-inflammablo 
material  but  they  must  be  so  arranged  that  fire  when  started 
can  be  confined  to  one  room  <,r  to  the  smallest  jx.ssible  space 
VV  ith  this  object  m  view,  they  slmuld  be  e-iuij.ped  with  self- 
closing  metal   doors,    and  windows  witli   wire  glass  or  mef.I 
shutters.     They  should  have  automatic  fire  alarms,  and  above 
all  an  adequate  sprinkler  system.     Steel  framing  must  be  en- 
close.1  and  protected  with  some  material  such  as  brick   til     terr-i- 
eotta  or  concrete.      r„der  these  .•onditions  with   insurunce  on 
tlie  contents,  a  manufacturing  enterj.rise  is  reasoiiahlv  .afe 

Hml.iing  types  arranged  in  order  of  their  relative  first  cost  are 
as  follows : 

A    Con.plete  sl<.el  frame,  fireproofc.l.  with  curtain  walls  and 
plank  floor. 

n    Interi.,r  st<.,.l  frame,  fireproof ed.  with  .solid  brick  walN  and 
plank  floor. 

C    Complete  steel  fram<.,  fireproof,.,!,  with    curtain  walls  and 
reinforced  concrete  floors. 

I)    Interior  steel  frame,  fireproof,.,!,  with  soli,!  brick  walls  atul 
reinforced  concrete  floor.s. 

E.   Entire  reinforced  concri.t,.  building. 

F    Part  interi,.r  steel  frame,  n<.t  fireproofed,  with  solid  brick 
w."J!s  and  wood  mill  floons. 

G.  Entire  wood  mill  construction. 

Hi 


M 


IIS    i:\(;/\i:i:h'i.\(;  or  snoi's  .wn  f.\ctories 

'I'lic  (iisl  cust  is,  liowcvcr,  not  Jilwnys  llic  j;i>voriiiiij;  considora- 
tioii,  for  in  tlicsc  liincs  of  laific  cntcrprisfs,  any  rca.soiialilc 
invest iiiciil  is  |)crini>sili|(>  whicli  will  result  in  ultimate  economy, 
when  the  expcMises  of  maintenance,  depreciation,  interest  and 
insurance  are  considered.  The  selection  of  a  building  type  is, 
iiuleed,  a  choice  of  th(>  most  profitai)lc  investment. 

The  annual  tleprcciation  of  v.ood  mill  huildinjis  is  usually 
assumed  at  1  to  \\  percent,  of  their  first  cost,  and  the  corre- 
sponding depreciation  of  coiu'rete  l)uildin<;s  would  proi)al)ly  not 
exceed  half  of  1  per  cent.,  thoufjh  on  this  suhject  there  is  little 
reliable  information  as  the  type  is  comparatively  new.  Oscilla- 
tion and  vil)ratinn  in  huildinu;  frames  of  wood  and  steel,  cause  a 
further  loss  in  machinery  repairs  and  increased  power,  which  is 
variously  estinuited  at  1/2  to  1  per  cent,  of  tlieir  first  cost,  and 
this  loss  is  avoided  hy  the  use  of  rifjid  framinn;  such  as  ccmcrete. 
Fireproof  types  have  a  sli-jht  advantage  also  over  wood  constr-M- 
tion  in  the  matter  of  sanitation  and  lijiht,  for  more  wall  area  is 
available  for  windows,  and  rats,  mice  and  other  vermin  luive 
less  chance  to  collect  and  live. 

In  comparing  the  first  cost  of  buildings  in  wood  mill  construc- 
tion and  in  reinforced  concrete,  it  will  be  found  that  their  relative 
cost  varies  with  the  locati<ui,  size  of  biiilding  and  the  floor  loads 
to  l)e  sustained.  In  the  Southern  States,  or  other  regions  where 
timber  is  abundant  and  cheap,  wood  construction  will  oiten 
cost  !'.">  to  ;iO  per  cent,  less  than  reinforced  concrete,  while  in 
districts  where  wood  is  scarce,  the  two  types  may  be  nearly 
e(iual. 

The  com|)arison  depends  also  on  the  size  of  the  Iniilding,  for 
large  ones  have  often  lieen  found  to  c«)st  about  the  same  in  either 
material,  and  small  ones  are  sometimes  more  rxpensive  bj-  150, 
40  or  .")0  per  ctiit.  in  reinforced  concrete  than  in  wood.  Tlie 
required  'loor  cajjacity  also  affects  the  comjjarison.  Light  loads 
with  louf,  spans  are  cheaper  in  wood  mill  construction'  than  in 
reinforced  corn'rete,  the  cost  of  the  two  types  being  nearly  ecpial 
in  large  buildings  with  I'OO-Ib.  '  posed  loads  pei'  scpiare  foot, 
and  colunui  spacing  of  IS  to  20  .  With  loads  of  300  to  oOO  lb. 
I)er  s(|uure  foot,  concrete  bicmn.  ihe  cheaper,  and  the  saving 
increases  rapid  y  with  greater  loads  of  1000  to  IJOO  lb.  per 
sc(uare  foot. 

A  concrete  building  designed  hy  the  writer  and  containing 
about  oOO.OOO  cu.  ft.,  was  found  to  cost  17  per  cent,  more  than 


,  •'^*AVx:»p*ijni, 


t  w'''-:  '  ,':^ir 


*.*^A 


IVOOD,  COSCRErE  ASD  STEEL  BUILDISCS     119 

one  in  wood  mill  constructior.,  and  al)oiit  the  samo  as  a  building 
with  complete  interior  fireproofed  steel  frame,  solid  walls  and 
wood  floorn.  It  was  in  Ohio,  and  the  total  floor  load,  inclu.ling 
both  hv(!  and  dead,  was  200  lb.  per  s,,uare  foot.  (See  Tyrrcirs 
Mill  Huildinf,'s,  p.  GJ.) 

As  a  general  rule,  therefore,  it  will  be  found  that  reinforced 
concrete  in  the  Northern  States,  costs  about  the  s;une  as  wood 
for  large  l)uildings,  worth  .SL'.-)0.000  or  more,  with  heavy  loads 
Those  worth  $2.-),(KK)  to  S1(K),0()0  will  usuallv  cost  10  to  20  per 
cent,  more  in  concrete  than  in  wo(.d,  ami  small  structures,  espe- 
cially  for  light  loads,  may  be  cheaper  in  wood  by  30,  40,  or 
even  .iO  per  cent. 

The  following  table  gives  a  miscellaneous  lot  of  bids  and  esti- 
mates on  manufacturing  buildings,  with  comparative  costs  in 
wood  mill  construction  and  in  reinforced  concrete.  It  will  ])o 
Been  that  tlie  costs  in  most  cases  are  from  1  to  27  per  cent  higher 
in  concrete  than  in  wood,  though  two  of  them  are  cheaper  in 
concrete. 


TABLK    XII-COMPAItATIVK    COST    OF    WOOD    MM.!,    roVSTRUCTIO.V     WD 

iu;i\K)uci;d  co.ncuktk  iiiiii.Di.viis 


Kind 


F;i(!tr)ry.  .  .  . 

I-'actury. 

Factory. .  . . 

Factory. 

Factory 

Warehouse 

Warehouse 

Warehouse 

Warehouse 

I'rt'ss  Mciff 

HaktTy.. 

Shop   ... 

Sho„    .  .  . 


<'osI    of  Co    t    of            CoiKTl'tO 

I         I'lae,.         ;       '"^•'        s,„n.,    ';""'      „.„„,  e.u.cr-,..  "'"'"  '"  ''- 

I                                            ,      bl.l«.  ,     l,ld«.     ,  >"-^«-d 

!'''"■"''■            •■'        •■*""     »-8.20O  f2H.:m  I     1  ..5  n.orc 

I.T.sey  City. .     60X110          5        L'lX)       iL'.iHHI  Mm)        7.1  more 

'.run,    Ka„.,l., ...         ,s.-,„«„,  ,s«,(XX)  !      1  .;t  ,„„ro 

FallR,v..r.  112X111',        1         .      .      7 1,,«K)  si,.^M,  ,  ,o.:i  .m.rn 

Mui.cheslor.      «X100  I       r,           .          r,2m)  7--,(K)(l  i  L'7  7  more 

""■'"» 20X1.W        !)        .      :i2.m)  luo.mx)  '  »i..ii,..s8 

■f.wy  City. .     .-WX    «l           fi         i'(K)       .(•(.(HK)  4:i,000  O..'!.„ore 

I  iltsburg.       100X120           l                     oi,.VK,  fi:,,6,K)  .j.:,  „„,„. 

\.i.,h.m...       100X20(J          8           .        ii7,0(J0  1:U,0(H)  10.7  luor.- 

...     .         .  ■        ■• I.Onioro 

<inom.mti...   00,0;Xlg.f m)       61.000  i    62.500  •'  :i  les.-, 

Cincinnati. io,0(K)  Iit.KK)  16.2  more 

Neiv  Englan.l     o,-,„s()o  6!I,.VK)  .1 . 2  more 


Bid 
Bid 
Bid 
Hid 
Kst. 
Bid 
Bid 
Bid 
Bid 
Bid 
Bi<l 
Rst, 
Kst. 


Comparing  now  the  vllimate  cost  of  the  two  types.  For  con- 
venience, a  wooden  l)uilding  will  be  assumed  at  §100,000,  aiul  a 
concrete  building  10  per  cent,  more  or  SI  10.000.  and  tlie  con- 
tents in  each  case  will  be  assumed  of  equal  value  to  the  building. 
The  yearly  maintenance  cost  of  each  will  tlicrefore  be  as  follows: 


i^^^m^^Wi^ 


l.-)0     I'JSaiSEKIilSG  OF  SHOPS  AM)  FACTOIilES 


W.hkI 


i 


l)c|)rc<-i;ilii)ti  lit   I   1    2  per  cent 

ItiMiraiirc  on  lililn    at  .SO  cents 

liisuraiu'c  on  contcntsat  $1.10 

InttTcst  and  taxes  at  7  jht  ci-nt 
Oscillation,  viliration  at  1  |HTfcut. 


HeiiiforcfMl  concrot* 


...81, .".00     at  12  iKTcent 

X<H)     ut  20  ccnt.s 

1,1()0    ttt80ceiitH 

.      7,tK10 
,     1,(K«) 


Total ?11,4(K) 


$  ,'>(MI 
220 

7,700 


$<),:S(M) 


Tlic  rcinfnicfd  ((.iicri'to  huildiii}'  co.stinK  S11(),(X)0  will  then 
liiivc  ii  iiiaiiitcnimcc  ciLst  of  82100  per  year,  or  "J.l  per  cont.  less 
than  the  wooden  oiu-  at  $100,000,  and  thi.s  ditTcrcncc  of  $2100  at 
0  per  cent.,  is  intere.st  on  .$3.'),(M)0.  It  would,  therefore,  he  per- 
nii.ssihle  to  invest  an  additioind  ?;jr),()00  on  a  eonerete  buildinji, 
to  make  the  two  types  of  equal  idtiniate  (ost.  A  eonerete  huild- 
inj;  co.sting  ?1 1.'),000  or  1,")  pei  eent.  more,  has  therefore  no  greater 
ultimate  cost  than  a  wooden  one  at  .$HM),(K)0. 

In  comparing  the  cost  of  fireproofed  .steel  construction  with 
reinforced  concrete,  complete  framing  and  e.vterior  curtain  walla 
being  considered  in  l)oth  cases,  it  will  be  found  that  for  imposed 
floor  loads  of  1")0  lb.  per  square  foot  or  more,  concrete  will  be 
cheaper  than  steel  by  5  to  20  per  cent.,  depending  on  condition-^. 
For  light  loads,  the  coat  of  the  two  types  will  be  nearly  equal, 
and  in  some  ca.ses  with  very  light  load  and  long  spans,  steel 
framing  will  be  slightly  cheaper.  One-story  buildings  over 
large  areas  are  best  when  framed  in  steel. 

-V  comparison  made  by  tiie  writer,  on  a  building  costing  about 
■'i.'jO.OOO,  for  total  floor  loads  of  200  lb.  per  s<iuare  foot,  showed 
that  one  witii  fireproofed  steel  framing  and  heavy  wooden  floor, 
cost  12  per  cent,  more  than  one  of  reinforced  concrete  with  grano- 
lithic floor  surface.  It  a[)pears,  therefore,  that  factory  build- 
ings of  reinforced  concrete  have  the  lowest  cost  of  any  fire- 
proof construction  that  is  yet  available. 

The  following  table  gives  the  comparative  cost  of  a  variety 
of  buildings  of  different  kinds,  in  both  reinforced  concrete  and  in 
steel.  It  shows  that  the  former  tyj)C  is  cheaper  than  the  latter 
by  3  to  13  per  cent. 

From  comparative  estimates  made  by  the  writer  for  a  building 
of  .")00,000  cu.  ft.,  to  determine  tlie  comparative  cost  of  fire- 
proofed steel  construction  and  wood  mill  framing,  it  appears 
that  one  with  cf)mplete  fireproofed  steel  frame,  side  curtain 
wall.^  and  wood  floors,  costs  30  per  cent,  more  than  wood  mill 
construction,  while   the  same  building  with  only  interior  fire- 


, 


\y()Of>,  COSCRKrE  ASD  STHHL  HVlU)I\ilS     151 


TAB!.i;  XIII    luMi-AKATivi:  fosT  (tF  nuiLDixcs  IX  iti:i.\Fom'i;i>  fov- 

CHDTE  AND  IN  dlEKL' 


Kind 


Place 


Si»o 


CoMt    of 

Sto-     Loa<i       rein-        Cinit  of 
he*      Iba.    '   furced        iteel 
j  oimereta 


Ile-Qon. 
niiiro  or  leM 
than  ttevl 


Factory      . 

Faclory  . .. 
W'ftrchouso 
Office. 
Office. 

MiU 


Store..  . 
llofipilal. 
Hotel 
Hotel 

Factory. 

UAi  .... 


DmMoinra. .  66X132 
Fairmounl...  50XI0O 
Brooklyn..       140  X  IW) 

St.  Louis 86X120  8 

Cincinnati     .  .17 

Boaton .'  3 

Cambridge        60  <  320  '•  5 

Indirinapolin.     71X120  |  6 

tiidiantpolia '  8 

St.  I^>ui«  .       120X140  I  8 

St.  I^uiii..       I  11 

Ohio f  12 

SprinRfield       105X283  9 


a 

1 
200 

3 

2(X) 

10 

200 

70 
70 


125 

70 

70 

200 

l.V) 


teo.eoo 

23,000 
2S0,tX)0 
170,000 

278,200 

90,(XX) 

89,.500 

7i>3,000 

171,000 

2U0.000 

40,000 

280,(J00 


tB9,7SO 

28,000 

280,(X)0 

184,000 

286,400 
K7,;t00  i 
06.000 
823,000  I 
181.000  , 
304,000  1 
letis  than 
320.000  ! 


13'-.  Ie«  . 
10.7  lew.  . 
10.7  lew... 

7.AI«M     . 

4.0  leiM. .. 

2.8  leai... 

^t .  3  more 

0.8  lew     . 

3.6  lew.  . 

7.0  less. 

4 . 6  lesd. 

steel 

12..'5  1ei«... 


Kit. 
Bid 
Bid 
Hid 
Bid 
Bid 
Bid 
Bid 
Bid 
Bid 
Bid 
Bid 
Bid 


proofed  steel  frame  and  solid  bearing  walls,  co.st  19  per  cent, 
more  than  wood.  If  the  first  building  mentioned  above  had  a 
reinforced  concrete  floor,  its  cost  would  be  37  per  cent,  more 
than  wood  mill  construction,  while  the  corresponfling  cost  of  the 
second  one  with  reinforced  concrete  floor  would  Ijc  26  per  cent, 
more. 

'  J.  P.  II.  Terry,  in  Engineering  Magazine,  July,  1911. 


CIIAPTKU  XII 
FOUNDATIONS 

Permanoni  hiiildinjrs  sl.niil.I  hiivo  siihstiintijil  foundations, 
for  on  (Ih-iii  dejn'Uil.s  tia-  .stal.ilily  of  tlic  wliol.^  cii-ction.  Und.-r 
tliiM  heading  is  considorod  the  siilj-stmta  or  soil  on  Vliicii  tlic 
I'uilding  stands  as  woll  as  the  footing  ((.iir.scs  or  masonry  below 
ground  level.  Foundations  fur  factory  building's  are  usually  not 
difficult,  for  a  site  will  have  hetn  selected  witli  due  regard  for 
economy  in  this  direction,  so  the  subject  will  be  discussed  only 
briefly.  Any  effort  at  exhaustive  treatment  would  in  itself,  fill 
a  vyhole  volume.  Foundations  must  be  provided  not  only  for  the 
buildiiifis,  but  also  for  maciiinery,  yard  cranes,  water  towers 
an.l  other  works  al)out  the  plant,  and  enou-1,  foresioht  must  be 
i.-ed  to  provide  spa<-e  or  openings  throu-:h  tiie  walls  for  power 
tunnels  or  for  lines  of  pij.e,  sewers,  service  mains  or  conduits. 

Loads.— The  loads  which  the  foundations  must  sustain 
can  be  computcil  approximately  from  i)icliminarv  1  lildins 
plans,  and  from  tli.'  wei^'ht  ..f  machinery  and  appliances  ^  re" 
ported  by  their  makers.  Floor  loads  v,  ill  have  been  .-stabiiMied, 
and  these,  t(.^ether  with  their  dead  weight,  will  be  tt  .nsmitted 
throu-rh  the  framin-  to  the  grouii.i.  Fr..ni  the  kiun  u  weifiht 
of  mas(mry  and  other  buildin-  mat.  rials  and  the  approximate 
rules  for  weijiht  ..f  framinj;  as  jiiven  in  previou  chapters,  the 
total  wei-ht  .m  the  M.il  can  be  .Utermined.  Impact  from 
cranes  and  machinery,  to  the  extent  of  :,()  to  100  per  ci-iit  of  the 
live  load,  must  in  som^  cases  be  added,  and  sometimes  the  over- 
turnnif;  effect  of  wind  on  the  leavard  side. 

Bearing  Power  of  Soils.— The  best  method  of  determining  the 
safe  bearin-  powci'  of  soils,  is  by  loa.lin-;  small  known  arearand 
observing  the  settlement .  f  n  many  cases  this  mav  not  be  neces- 
sary, -AS  an  experienced  builder  can  decide  the  matter  l)v  insp<-.- 
tion  or  by  very  simple  examination.  But  when  tlierc  is  am 
doubt,  tests  or  borings  should  be  made.  So  many  buildings 
have  been  permanently  injured  I'V  xuu'von  settlonicnt,  that  it  is 
iolly  to  assume  risks  in  this  direction  when  the  condition  of  the 

152 


^^'^mi^msmr. 


FOUSDATIOXS  ,-,3 

pro.m.i  ran  easily  he  four  at  .lii^ht  expense.  WI.en  soun.lh.us 
are  .le.iral.le,  ti,.y  shoul.i  made  under  the  siw  „{  - 1  ,■  ,„„p,w,.,l 
}>u.lclinK  ami  not  Minply  •  ,.r  it.  The  be.st  nio.h.,,1  ..f  (li.,uv.-r- 
ing  su.l  .unditmns  is  hy  u  ..,.g  test  pits,  th"Uj;h  a  ,,uici<er  way 
'^  with  u  Iar>?e  wood  auge,  fastened  to  a  rod  or  F)i|>e.  The  test 
pit  gives  the  jireatest  <.ppoi   unity  for  exaiiiitiin^r  tl„.  .strata 

For  the  purpose  of  takhi-  soundings,  .se.tions  of  pipe  ul,o.ifc 
IJinnn-s  .lian.eter,  ean  l.e  driven  into  il...  gn.und  with  the 
assistance'  of  a  water  jet  whei  m-.e.ssarv,  the  driving  Imm,,.  ;l,„.e 
with  a  u  MHlen  maih-t.  The  upper  end  of  the  pipe  shoui.l  he 
pioteete,!  hy  a  eap,  and  new  s,-.  tions  of  j.ipe  n.av  he  spli,.,.,i  ,s 
needed.  ' 

The  sah'  h,,.aring  vahie  of  diffen-nt  kinds  of  soil,  as  us<-,i  hy  the 
I  nited  States  government  engineers,  is  as  foihnvs: 

TAUI.i:  .\iv 

\^"^^  ■, -'00  tons  per  K.|u«ri<  f<  ot 

Gravel,  cem.M.to.!  s  to  10  tons  jxt  s,,uur.>  l.^.t 

Sand,  comiuiot  an<l  ol.-a.i .  .  4  f o    0  tons  ,x>r  ^,,,mr..  ,„ot 

Sand,  onhnarj- -' to    4  ton«  jht  s,,uaro  foot 

IryHtiffclay 4  to    G  tonn  ,H>r  s,,uar,..  f.n.t 

M.MleratWy  dry  clay.  li  „.    4  tons  ,H'r  M.uare  foot 

,P:  ;■""'' 1  to    2  tons  ,K^r  N.|.iare  foot 

Quicksand  an.l  wot  soil   ...  1  2  to    1  ton  jht  s,|uare  foot 

Tl  o  hearing  power  of  .soils  may  .sometimes  he  increased  hy  drain- 
i^'v.  Mr  coinpressing  the  eari^  .  .  ••  a  firm,.,-  .tra.a  n.av  l.^  found 
•I.  -•  ater  depth.     In  of lier  ,  ..-        ilcs  „u,y  he  driven " 

Area  on  the  Soil.-Fr,.„,  v,  -  n:re  of  the  ground  as  revealed 
j ..  soundings  or  test  .  •  .  u  .  .^,.  oearing  load  per  square  foot  can 
l.e  determined,  and  fro.  ,  tv  weight  of  the  huilding  as  found  l,y 
computation,  the  area  of  ha.se  can  he  proportioned.  Founda- 
tion loads  are  rarely  assumed  greater  thru  1  to  2  tons  per  square 

In  propMi-tioning  tlie  foundation  area  to  the  load  upon  it  an 
effort  need  not  he  made  to  elimin.ate  all  .settlement,  hut  rather 
to  so  plan  :he  huilding  that  whatever  .settlement  does  take  place, 
will  he  un.form.  With  this  in  mind  it  will  he  .seen  that  it  i.  often 
as  great  a.  ...jury  to  make  some  parts  too  large  as  it  would  be  to 
make  them  small,  for  they  would  then  not  settle  at  the 
same  rate  Ho,-k  foundation  is  satisf,,tory  whon  it  underlies 
the  whole  building,  though  cranes  and  maehinerv  may  run  ea.sier 
when  founded  on  earth  or  timber.     Hock  under' «omo  parts  nua 


UA     E\GIS'KKliI\G  OF  SHOPS  A\D  FACTORIES 


earth  under  otlier  parts,  is  not  desinible,  for  the  first  is  unyield- 
ing while  cartli  will  compress,  to  some  extent.  Tiierefore,  in 
pasainj;  from  rock  to  earth,  the  footing  courses  should  be  spread 
out  over  the  softer  material  so  the  pressure  per  square  foot  on 
the  soil  adjoining  the  rock  will  be  less  than  it  is  further  away. 
jSloping  rock  must  be  dressed  off  into  horizontal  8tei)s.  Loam  is 
seldom  reliable,  and  sand,  gravel  and  hard  pan  are  the  best,  for 
they  are  firm  and  can  easily  be  drained.  Trenches  through 
earth  and  clay  shoidd  have  layers  of  sand  and  gravel  rammed  in 
solid  to  fill  the  whole  width  of  trench  from  side  to  side.  Soft 
strata  overlaid  with  a  layer  of  hard  material,  G  to  8  ft.  thick,  is 
usually  safe. 

Till"  footings  must  be  far  enough  under  ground  to  be  below 
the  reach  of  frost,  and  should  go  down  to  the  original  bed  below 
any  recent  filling. 

The  cost  of  excavation  without  shoring  will  bo  about  as  follows: 

General  oxcnvation  in  soft  material,  costs  25  to  .50  cents  per  cul)ic  yard. 
Treiicli  excavation  in  soft  inateriiii,  costs  50  to  100  cents  jht  cubic  yard. 
Trencli  excavation  in  rock  material,  costs  $1.00  to  $2.00  jht  cubic  yard. 

Foundation  Walls. — lirick  should  be  clean  and  wet  before 
laying,  and  basement  walls  should  recci\-e  two  coats  of  tar  on 
the  exterior  before  filling  earth  in  behind  them.  Continuous 
walls  are  freciuently  the  best,  especially  when  columns  are 
fairly  dose  together,  but  separate  piers  are  cheaper  when  they 
are  far  apart. 

Piers. — Interior  columns  may  be  arranged  to  deliver  their 
loads  (1)  on  a  solid  slab  of  concrete  covering  the  whole  shop 
ba.-sement,  (2)  on  separate  concrete  bases  extending  over  to  the 
adjoining  wall  colunuis,  or  (3)  on  independent  interior  piers. 
The  first  of  the.se  methods  was  used  in  ^'^80  in  i  .^  nv  England 
mill  50  by  SO  ft.  in  plan,  a  solid  mass  of  ci.  ■  'rcte  /  hick  being 
placed  under  the  whole  building,  but  a  more  nr  .jrn  and  im- 
proved method  is  shown  in  Fig.  80, 

Individual  piers  should  have  se-  <'ra!  oITiset  footing  courses 
(Fig.  81)  rather  than  building  them  as  truncated  concrete  cones 
(rig.  82),  for  in  the  fir.st  methotl  the  forms  are  more  easily  made. 
The  projecting  courses  should  l)e  small  enough  so  they  will  not 
crack,  and  succ(>ssive  layers  should  generally  spread  out  at  an 
angle  not  exceeding  30  degrees  with  the  vertical.  Spread  con- 
crete footings  can  also  be  made  in  octagonal  form  with  plain  or 
roughened  reinforcing  bars  in  fo\ir  directions.     Bars  may  gener- 


FOUNDATIONS 


155 


ally   be   J    to   I    in.  diameter,   and  3   to  12  in.  apart.     Other 
bases  may  be  made  with  beams  or  track  rails  in  two  directions 
embedded  in  concrete,  or  timber  foundations  can  be  used  in 
places  where  they  will  be  always  wet  or  always  dry      When 


section       A- 8 

Fia.  80.— Foundation  slal)  for  a  building  over  quicksand. 

Stone  i.s  used  in  piers,  it  must  li(>  flat  on  its  natural  bed,  but  on 
account  of  their  b.-tter  Ijoml,  hard  brick's  or  concrete  are  prefer- 
able. Piers  should  be  large  enough  so  the  pressure  on  them 
will  not  exc.'cd  250  lb.  per  square  inch  on  stone,  or  150  to  20C 


fiJ 


150     K\GL\Ef-RI.\(;  OF  SHOPS  A.\D  F.U'TOIilES 

lb.  on  brick,  and  tlicy  .sl,„„Ul  l,o  c'.pped  with  a  block  of  cut  -stone 
fine  moulded  coricrcK  ,  or  cast  iron.  Tlie  tliicknesH  of  masonry 
caps  should  not  lu'  less  than  one-fifth  of  their  lon^jest  side. 

Notwithstanding  j^eneral  rules,  each  ca.se  must  have  separate 
thuuK!:t  and  study,  for  it  may  i.,-ed  some  special  treatment. 

Piles.— lioarin-  pih-.s  may  bo  eitlicr  of  wood  or  concrete,  -ind 
biiect  piles  of  wood  or  steel. 

The  top  of  wooden  piles  shoul.l  always  be  umier  water  to 
prevent  decay,  because  timber  rots  when  alternatelv  wet  and 
dry.  They  shoui.l  generally  \ye  .iriven  until  tlie  peiu^t ration 
under  the  last  blow  of  a  2()()0-lb.  lianuner  does  not  e.xceed  1  in 
flu.u^il,  tins  ,.s  not  an  ab.sohite  rule,  for  in  certain  places  as  aIon<J 
the  river  at  ButTalo,  jrround  is  .s„  .soft  as  to  shake  for  100  ft.  in 
every  duection  when  llie  lianuner  falls. 


lie.  SI. 


i'Ki.    Si 


Saunder's  rule  for  the  safe  load  on  piles  is. 

Safe  ioad,  in  pounds.     ' 

'       2     S 

while  another  and  more  recent  formula  is, 

>aie  load,  m  pounds,  =    ,~    . 
S+\ 

In  both  of  the  abov.",  JI' is  the  weidit  of  hammer  ia  pound.s 

//  is  the  fall  of  the  hammer  in  feet,  and 

S    is    the    penetialiuii    in    inches    under 

the  last  blow. 

J'lies  .lependiii'-,  on  fiiction  will  iienerally  safely  support  10  to 

1")  tons  each.  thoii>,di  never   more   tiian   IM   t(,ns.     They  should 

have  .an  iron  ring  fit.ed  over  their  liead  wlien  there  is  a  tViuU'ncy 

t"  split,  and  they  may  also  hav(>  pointed  cast-iron    shoes  when 

nece.s.sary,   tiiou-h    this  adds  to   the  expeiusc  and   is  oft.^n   no 

better    than    pnintin-    the    pile  it>..lf.     They  can  be  driven  2'. 

to.'Ut.  apart,  and  when  .sawed  (.tflevel,  they  .should  be  capped 

with  timber  jirillafie  or  a  .solid  .sjai)  of  concrete  2  to  :5  ft.  thick 

e.xtendinfr   down    over    the    pile    hea<ls.      Wooden    i.iles    usually 

cost  'J.''  to  3.')  cents  per  lineal  foot  in  place. 


FOrSDATlOXS 


157 


f  .nun-to  piles,  borauso  „f  their  greater  porn.anonce,  are  rom- 
i.iK  „,to  favor  n.orc  than  w.,,,,!.     Thoy  are  nuule  i„  several  ways 
OHch  of  whuh  IS  pato„tod.     The  average  cost  of  concrete  piles 
in  place  is  SI  to  SI. 2.-,  per  lineal  foot. 
Sheet  piling  (Fig.  8:5)  i.s  plank 

connected     witli      toncruc     and 

Ki-oovo,  or   splines,  and  it  can 

best  be  driven  by  light  and  rapid 

blows,  for  tJie  wood  is  then  less 

likely  to  .sjjlit.     Coffer  dams  con- 
wist  of  two  rows  of  sheet  i)iling  ;} 

to  5  ft.  apart,  filled  in  between 

with  clay  i)ud(lle.     To  prevent 

overturning,  the  width  between 

tlie  inner  and  outer  row  of  sheet- 
ing must  be  proportioned  to  the 

depth    of    \\ater     in    which    it 

stands. 

Engine     Foundations.— Light 

machinery  even   when  founded 

on  masonry,  will  run  smoother 

when    bolstered    up    on    timber. 

Masonry  foundations  .should  l)e 

imder  steam  hammers  nn.st  have  .some  .spring  and  in  thLs  ca.se 

.s'.i.d     nnber  is   preferable   to   ma.sonry,   though   a   cushion    of 

asphalt  will  assist  in  destroying  vibration.     The  anvil  founda- 


S 


Fio.  83.— Detail  of  sheet-piling, 
lid  in  cement  mortar.     Tliose 


s\. 


turn  directly  un.ler  the  hamm,.r  should  be  separate  aiui  di.scon- 
ncted   fnun   that   which   supports   the  bearings  at  either  side 
so  the  imp.Het  from  the  bh.ws  will  be  transmitted  directly  to  the 
earih,  without  jarring  the  other  bases. 


:  I 

:  t 
If. 
I  i 
i  t 


CHAPTER  XIII 
GROUND  FLOORS' 

Factory  floors  may  ho  divided  into  two  j^onoial  classos,  ground 
lloDis,  and  iippiT  (lodis,  and  in  i-acli  ca.so  a  distinction  inu.st  be 
made  between  the  structural  part.-,  and  the  wearing'  surface  cr 
finisii.  Tiie  various  iiinds  of  floor;-  will  first  be  descril)ed  in 
order,  after  wliich  will  be  jjiven  tiie  types  wJiich  are  best  suited 
for  different  shojKs  and  industries,  the  choice  dependuia;  in  eaclk 
rase  upon  the  character  of  work  done,  and  the  size  and  weight 
of  products  and  machinery.  Wodd,  asphalt,  clay,  l)rick,  con- 
crete, and  metal,  are  all  suitable  in  their  places,  and  they  will  be 
descriiied  in  detail  in  later  paf;es.  lu.somo  buildings  .such  asforjro 
nhops.  a  dirt  or  cinder  floor  i.s  the  best,  wliilo  only  a  hard  and 
diistless  surface  is  suitable  iii  roams  wliore  line  instruments  arc 
made. 

(iround  floors  should  be  Imilt  like  good  street  pavements, 
l)ein<i  extra  solid  fur  heavy  work  and  loads,  and  less  pernument 
for  lifihter  service.  The  common  forms  are:  (1)  earth,  (2)  wood 
block.  (.'])  plaidv  floors,  (I)  tar-concrete  and  wooii,  (o)  cement- 
concrete  and  tiranolithic,  (d)  aspluilt,  and  (7)  brick. 

.Shop  flours  shoidd  fjciu'rally  have  u  sli<;ht  fi:rade,  preferably 
in  tiie  direction  of  the  ^ifalest  travel,  not  only  to  facilitate 
draiiuige,  but  also  to  make  easier  the  startiiij;'  and  movement  of 
loaded  trucks  and  cans.  Where  water  is  freely  used,  as  in  car 
t^iu'ds  and  round  houses,  ^jood  drainafje  is  imperative,  for  the 
best  work  (  aiuu)t  be  done  wlien  nu'u  are  standinji  in  water  with 
their  feel  wet.  In  the  constnictiou  of  .steel  frame  buildings  the 
•■ontract  for  winch  is  frequently  placed  with  a  structural  .steel 
company  in  a  distant  city,  the  ^jround  floor  can  usu.illy  be  more 
cheaply  made  by  a  builder  who  is  familiar  with  local  conditions 
and  the  .source  of  supplies. 

Earth  Floors.— These  are  ])erliaps  the  simplest  kind  of  shop 
floors.  Tiiere  siioidd  first  be  hud  a  be<l  of  sand,  over  which  cin- 
«leis  are  spread,  and  this  should  be  well  compressed  and  flooded 
with  a  ho.se  every  day  for  two  or  three  weeks,  being  rolled  each 
till"  after  wetting.  Instead  of  cinders,  a  mi.xture  composed  of 
'  H.  Ci.  Tyrnli,  in  EmjimeriiKj  Muujiizinv,  July-August,  1912. 

158 


t^Stii  Ik^'T^^i'.^ 


GROVXD  FLOORS  159 

one  part  of  day  with  three  of  gravel  may  be  vmcd,  spread  8  to 
1-  in  deep  and  rammed,  the  clay  acting  as  a  cement  or  binder 
for  the  gravel.  I„  any  ca«e,  the  floor  must  have  a  top  layer  of 
fine  cmders  or  sand  to  prevent  mud  from  forming  on  the 
surface. 

Wood  Block  Floors.-Wood  blocks  make  an  excellent  shop 
foor  -one  that  is  easy  to  walk  up..n,  with  little  or  no  liability  to 
slipping.  Uhen  not  subject  to  moisture  or  water  soaking  the 
b  o,.ks  ran  l)e  used  in  their  natural  condition,  and  they  must 
hen  he  la.d  with  l/.l-in.  open  joints  for  e.xpansion,  the  joints 
being  faiied  m  with  sand.  When  e.xposed  to  weather,  the  blocks 
■bnuld  be  rreosoted  and  the  joints  filled  with  sand  and  pitch  or 
i^.nent  grout.  Th«  (lour  should  then  endure  for  ten  to  twontv 
years.  "     ■' 

A  good  specification  for  a  wood  block  floor  is  to  first  spread 
and  thoroiighly  compact  a  layer  of  gravel  or  cinders  12  in   deep 
over  which  is  laid  4  in.  of  concrete.     One  or  two  inches  of  .and 
IS  then  snrf.ud  and  rolled,  and  on  this  are  placed  the  wood  blocks 
A  modifit-ation  of  tliis  }lnor  was  used  in  a  large  shop  330  ft   wide 
and  .  7«  ft.  long,  for  the  American  Bridge  Company  It  Ambridge, 
1  a.      1  he  slag  b,ise  was  first  spread  and  rolled,  and  on  this  was 
placed  a  G-in.  layer  of  tarred  gravel  covered  with  1  in   of  tarred 
sand.     On  tins  wc-re  set  tlu;  maple  and  beech  paving  blocks  which 
were  4  by  4  m.,  8  in.  long,  the  grain  of  the  wood  being  vertical 
ln.stead  of  the  concrete  ha.se  above  described,  a  2-in    laver 
of  .sand  IS  sometimes  .spread  over  the  bottom  counse  of  gravel"  or 
cinders,  and  2-in.  plank  laid  thereon,  as  a  ba.se  for  the  w..od 
I'h.cks.     This  latter  mctho.i  has  the  disadvantage  that  the  plank 
distributes  vibrations,  and  as  the  plank  decavs,  a  larger  area 
must  be  removed  for  renewing  or  replacing  it.     This   type   of 
loo: ,  with  oak  t,locks  .^  in.  high  and  G  to  12  in.  long,  was  used  in 
the  carsho,,s  for  the  llin.ois  Central  Railway  Company  at  Chicago 
Tte  ba«e  of  2  by  12  in.  hemlock  planks  was  laid  on  sleepers 
rml)ed(ifHl  m  sand. 

Woo<i  bl<K-ks  may  be  used  al.so  for  upper  floors  bv  placing  un- 
<ler  them  two  layers  of  paper  laid  in  pitch,  and  joini'ng  the  blocks 
with  paving  pitch  and  .sand.  This  floor  is  suitable  also  in 
foundries  fxccpting  within  a  few  feet  of  the  ovens. 

PUnk  Floors. -\Voo<J  (lo..rs  are  the  most  comfortable  to  walk 
and  work  upon,  and  re  usually  the  best  excepting  in  places 
wiiere  they  would  be  u«stroyed  by  chemicals,  moisture  or  heat 


icn    i:.\<;i.\i-:Ki{f\(;  of  shops  axd  factor! ks 

The  cnnifoit  (.f  (•iiii)l()y('cs  in  working  on  w()o<l  (loorn  is  impor- 
tant and  wnrtli  (■cinsi<lcrinic,  for  men  ran  do  tluMr  host  work  only 
when  contt'iilcd  and  conifortaljlo.  Tlie  prefcronco  of  workmen 
in  this  respect  Is  sliown  by  tlic  replies  received  from  forty  dif- 
fcHMit  factories,  from  twenty-six  of  wliidi  ji  decided  choice  was 
«>.\l)ressed  for  wood  over  jiny  otiicr  kind  of  wearing  surface. 
Tin*'  llooring  is  i)erhaps  tlie  best  when  the  life  has  not  all  been 
tapped  out  of  tlie  tree  before  sawing  it  into  boards.  Flooring 
boards  for  upper  surface  should  not  exceed  3  to  4  in.  in  width,  and 
they  should  have  hollow  backs  and  be  laid  in  the  direction  of 
the  greatest  travel.  Seven-eighth-inch  flooring  is  (piitc  as  good 
as  one  aiul  one-eighth,  for  when  the  thinner  boards  are  worn 
away  enough  for  renewal,  it  would  also  bo  time  to  replace  the 
thicker  one.  Maple  wearing  .surface  in  short  lengths  is  satis- 
factory, for  it  can  be  easily  repaired.  Two  layers  of  tar  paper 
should  be  placed  between  the  upper  and  lower  courses.  The 
lower  course  shoulil  preferably  span  two  bays  or  panels  for  the 
sake  of  greater  .strength  or  stiffness.  Planks  3  in.  thick  or 
more  should  have  splines  rather  than  tongue  and  groove,  though 
when  floors  are  used  for  trucking,  the  upper  boards  should  have 
S(piare  edges,  as  grooved  edges  break  under  heavy  loads  and 
wlii'cls.  Blind  or  edge  nailing  interferes  with  repairs  and  is, 
therefore,  not  desirable.  Four-inch  planks  should  have  7-in. 
steel  spikes,  one  keg  of  100  lb,  being  enough  to  lay  1200  scj.  ft. 
of  floor. 

All  wood  floors  liavc  the  disadvantage  that  water  used  in 
cleaning  tJK'm  will  soak  into  the  cracks  and  cause  the  boards 
t<-  cxpiind  and  form  ridges.  It  is  important,  therefore,  to 
devise  methods  for  preserving  them,  one  good  process  being 
tiiat  of  (  i-eosoiiiig.  In  this  process,  the  wood  is  first  dried  and 
tlic  crc.isote  oil  is  then  forced  into  it  under  a  pressure  of  150  lb. 
per  s(|uare  inch.  Unseasoned  timber  must  remain  unpainted, 
for  paint  on  siuh  material  is  wor.sc  than  none  at  all.  .After  two 
or  three  years,  when  the  wood  is  dry,  it  should  receive  three  coats 
of  oil  paint.  The  timber  mu.st  also  be  well  ventilated  to  pre- 
vent (lest  tint  ion  from  dry  rot. 

A  very  cheap  and  temporary  floorismade  l)y  placing  3-in.  plank 
on  iialf-round  timbers,  .i  ft.  apart,  embedded  in  0  to  8  in,  of  cin- 
der,-, tlie  wood  being  cua-.-d  on  the  under  side  with  lime.  Its 
cost  is  very  low,  being  oniv  .'>0  rents  j)er  scpiare  yard.  A  floor 
similar  to  this  with  2-in.  plank  on  chestnut  .slabs,  embedded  in 


ffii-Ji 


GROUND  FLOORS  kjj 

Kravol  over  inado  Kn-Mul,  .l..,.uy.d  witl.in  a  y.ar,  a.,,1    .Iutc- 
aftor  al,..ut  l.alf  of  i,  was  n-pla.-cd  annually.     L  ll ..  i,,..'....    a" 
v..uu.y  was  ano.iu.-  (l.,or  .i,h  2-in.  plank  ,.„  'A  l.v  12-in   jo  sH 

'  "  n-ncwa    for  twdv.  yans.     A  floor  .i,..ilar  to  tho.so  d<Jril...d 
alx.vo,  w.,h  sdls  c.n,lK.d,l,..l  in  san.l  i.-s.-ad  of  dn.l.rs,  was     s.d 
w..nty-hv.  y..ars  a«o  in  a  shop  for  Uill.an.  SHU-r.s  and  Con.p      . 
o    llula,h.lplna,  an  ..fTort  l„.in«  n.a.le  to  pn.orvo  tl.e  ph.nk  1  v' 
placing  und.M-  it  a  layer  of  rcsi,,  i  i„    ,|,i,.i,  '  ' 

Throe  other  ton.porary  wooden  I rs  n,ay  l.e  n.entioned;  the 

in  snuel  he  seeond  has  -t-ui.  plank  on  sills  laid  in  hroken  ston,- 
"•Hi  the  tlunl,  3-ni.  plank  on  4  by  O-i...  sills,  4  ft.  apart  en  h  ■  od' 
jn  about  (i  „.  of  cinders.  These  have  the  advan,  .,e  :,f  loC  !  ' 
1..'  ast  eos.„.g  not  over  10  to  12  eents  jh.-  s,,uare  foot  i  i 
.-ber  at  .0  per  thousand,  board  n.easui  If'a  eoner  U-  e 
.used  instead  of  cinder,  the  cost  would  be  23  to  30  cents  per 

A  floor  heavy  enough  to  carry  ordinary  nia.-hinerv  a.uwhere 

an  8-in  concrete  base,  after  which  G  by  G-in.  timbers  are  place! 
3  to  4  ft  apart  and  the  space  between  them  filled  with  concrete 
a  er  which  a  3  in  floor  was  laid.  A  still  heavier  floor  of  he"  i  ; 
kn.d  with  a  so  Id  layer  of  concrete,  2  ft.  thi<.k,  covced  with  pi  k 
«...  sleepers,  will  pc-rmit  lieavy  n.achiiu.s  to  be  ..et  anvwherc  w  it, 
-t  special  foundations.  Such  a  floor  was  used  Uic^t^  ^ 
shop  of  the  Alli.s-Chal,ners  plant,  at  Milwaukee    Wis  "^ 

a>.d  1  bj  J-in  spliiu-s,  was  used  in  the  Santa  IV-  Kuilwiv 
Hhops,  the  maple  flooring  being  .spiked  to  3  by  4-in.  vello^-  l^ 
locpers  18  m.  apart,  embe.lded  in  G  in.  of 'concrete.  In 'is 
ra^e  the  comrc-to  and  sleepers  without  the  flooring  cost  8  t  9 
cents  per  s.p.are  foot.  In  the  McKees  liock.s  railroad  sh  1 
>v.re  conduits  were  placed  below  the  door  ai  *'"  •  ""''^ 


ft.,  for  receiving  the  light  and  , 

layer  of  concrete  4  in.  thick  was  fir 
five  sheets  of  tarred  felt  in  h 


tervals  of  'A 
power  wires  for  the  machines.     .V 


■St  spread  and  co\-eml  with 


iiH'h  of  band.     On  this  1 


ot  tar,  over  which  w 


and  filled  between  with 


.yerof  sand,4  hv  4- 


coursi! 


"f  2|-in.    pine   plank,  and 


more  .sand,  over  whici 


is  spread  an 

lors  were  laid 

1  was  spiked  a 


sleep 


!i  wearing  surface   of    1, 


tongue  and  groove  maple.     Tlie  railway  shops  at  I 


-in. 


'arsons,  Kan. 


102     KSGlSKI'JIilSa  OF  SIIOI'S  AXD  FACTORIES 


have  a  snmowhat  .similar  floor  except ing  that  the  wearirif;  .sur- 
face i.s  i  \>y  1  |-in.  white  oak  witli  a  hiyer  of  roofing  felt  he- 
twcen  the  upper  aiul  lower  cour.se.s.  The  3  by  4-iii.  yellow  pine 
sleepers  were  treated  i)y  the  zinc  i)roce.s.s  to  jjreserve  fheni,  and 
the  space  between  them  filli-d  with  dry  .sand.  They  were  laid 
on  an  inch  of  sand  and  tar  over  a  G-in.  bed  of  broken  .stone. 
Floors  of  this  general  lype  with  .slight  modifications  are  numerous, 
nhowing  the  favor  with  wl.icli  they  are  n-ceived. 

One  man  will  lay  '1\  siiiuires  (J.JO  si],  ft.)  per  day  of  eight 
hour.s  on  upjier  floors  including  the  hoisting,  and  three  scpiares 
per  day  at  street  levi'l.  Laying  sleepers  co.sts  $■{  to  $4.."iO  per 
thousand  feet,  board  measure,  and  3-in.  flooring  about  $',i  per 
thousand. 

\<>.  1,  Y.P.  1!  X(>-iii  tonpup  ami  rtoovp,  posts  ?S  to  .*10  p<'r  s<iiinrp  Iiiiil. 
Xo.  1,  Y.i'.  :{Xt>-iii.,  toM);up!in<l  uroovc,  costs  $i:!  ppr  s(|uarp  laiil. 
4  X  }-in.  Y.I',  tongiio  iiml  (jroovc,  cost.s  $7  to  $H  jx-r  8(|iitir(>  laiil. 
6  X  i-iii.  Y.f'.,  tonnuo  !iii<l  Rroovc,  costs  S.")  to  •$•>  [ht  siiiian;  luid. 
4X  Jin.  W.f'..  loiiuuo  :iri(l  j:nM)vp,  costs  .*.s.,')()  to  SIO  ]wr  scpiaro  luiil. 
-I    ^   j.;-'"-  clear  niaplo,  tongue  ami  groovp,  co.sts  $fl  to  $13  per  .sipiaro 
laid. 

Floors  of  Tar-concrete  and  Wood. — \n  exc(>llent  shop  floor 
consists  of  a  bar'e  of  concrete  and  tar  or  asphalt,  with  a  wood 
wearing  surface.  Over  a  mixture  of  tar,  the  wood  is  preserved, 
while  o\-er  cement  concrete  it  decays  (piickly,  and  over  dead 
air  .space,  it  succumbs  to  dry  rot.  .\  floor  of  concrete  and  tar 
with  wood  top  is  solid,  without  vibrati.)iis,  tools  do  not  break 
when  they  fall,  and  machines  may  be  screwed  to  the  floor  any- 
where. It  is  nearly  firepr<K)f  beoau.se  there  are  no  sleepers  and 
no  air  space  beneath  the  wood,  i'  is  not  (>\ pensive,  and  will 
last  from  twenty  to  t wenty-fiv  year-  while  the  wood  top  makes 
it  comfortable  to  walk  uixm.  It  is  laid  by  first  s|)reading  a 
4  in.  layer  of  screeneii  CTavel  or  stone  not  larger  than  2^  in., 
mixed  with  tar.  The  tis  i  shonlil  be  lieated  to  200'^  l'\,  and  enough 
adiled  so  the  mixture  will  be  compact  when  rolled,  tlie  amount 
of  tar  re(iuired  for  difTen>nt  kind.s  of  aggregate  being  as  f')llows: 


Stono  2^  in.  to  1  in    fliatn,  uso. 
Stone  '_*J  in.  to  J  in,  <liain.  mm'. 

('(Kirw  cravcl. .  . 

tine  fjravel 


C>  callons  of  tar  p<T  ciiliic  yard 

(•  gallons  ol  tar  [ht  cuhic  yard 

7  gallons  o!'  tar  |)or  cubic  yard 

10  ualloii.-i  of  utf  per  cubic  y.ird 


The  sand   and  gravel   should   i)e  wi-ll   licited   i>.  '     r   the  t.-ir  is 
added.     Over  hard  ground,  .'  oi  3  ui.  of  tarreu  .-    'no  uw    be 


(IHOUND  FLOORS 


1G3 


enough.  No  economy  mnults  from  usinp;  rintlor.s  or  «imd  in  prp- 
fcrciu'o  to  8?  fine  for  t  lie  hot  torn  covering,  for  cimierH  re.(uire  1  *>  gal- 
lons of  liir  i-.TcuLic  yard,  and  sand,  -'() gallons.  Htonc  at  $1.2r)p(.r 
(•ui)ic  yard  iias,  therefore,  no  greater  ultimate  cont  than  cinders 
at  ")0  cents  per  yard.  In  some  cases,  4  to  (i  in.  of  cement  con- 
crete is  ii.sed  for  a  hawe  course,  instead  of  the  t ar-concrete  above 
specitieil,  hut  when  this  i.s  done,  it  should  receive  a  coat  of  tar 
hefore  laying  the  sand.  Over  this  base  of  concrete  is  spread 
a  1-in.  layer  of  sand  ami  tar,  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  50  to  (iO 
gallons  of  tar  to  each  yard  of  sand.  This  mixture  should  he 
lieated  to  2_>,r  F.,  sjjread  \\  in.  thick  and  roiled  down  to  1  in. 
While  it  is  yet  warm  and  soft,  a  layer  of  .3-in.  plank  is  embedded 
therein,  over  which  is  laid  a  top  wearing  surface  of  maple. 
The  cost  of  a  door  made  of  cinders  and  'ar  0-in.  deep,  overlaid 
with  ;{-in.  pla!»k  on  .'5  hy  l-in.  sleepers,  Iti  in.  on  centers,  embedded 
on  the  cinders,  is  as  follows: 

Cii  licr.s  anil  tiir S  ci-nfs  jM-r  wiuaro  foot 

^^  ^^ 10  Cf iits  per  sijuaro  foot 

In  the  above,  one  barrel  of  tar  was  used  with  eight  barrc  .  ■  /' 
cinders.  With  tar  at  $1'  to  %:,  per  barrel,  the  cost  of  these  iuwn 
should  not  exceed  'Jt  to  30  cents  per  square  foot.  A  floor  of 
this  kind  in  a  shop  tor  the  Boston  and  Albany  Railroad  Com- 
pany, with  a  4-in.  layer  of  coal-tar-concrete,  overlaid  with  one 
iiu'h  sand  and  \-\\\.  rooting  pitch,  with  two  layers  of  spruce 
plank,  2i  and  U  in.  thick,  cost  in  18i»8  only  18  cents  per 
square  foot,  \\ithout  the  wood  work,  the  cost  of  base  with 
stone,  sand  and  tar  should  not  exceed  10  to  13  cents  per  souare 
foot.  ^ 

This  type  of  floor  has  been  used  with  many  modifications. 
In  one  shop  cement  concrete  was  laid  G  to  ]'>  in.  thick,  with 
4  by  4-in.  wood  strips  endx-dded  therein  2  ft.  apart.  Over  the 
strips  and  concrete,  was  8i)read  a  layer  of  fine  sand  and  coal  tar, 
in  which  the  lower  plank  course  of  2-in.  fongue  and  groove 
yellow  pine  was  laid  and  nailed.  The  w_  smg  surface  in  this 
case  was  4  by  1 '-in.  maple  with  square  edge.  Owing  to  the 
splitting  of  matched  flooring  under  trucks,  and  the  difficidty 
of  rep;>.iiii;g  it.  .sipiare  edge  i)oards  are  frequently  preferred  for 
the  upper  'ourse. 

Cement-concrete  Floors.  Floors  of  cement-concrete  should 
be  laid  sin:!  ir  to  u  good  sidewalk  pavement,  with  cement  and 


ill 
til 


let      i:\i;l\     FHIM.   I  IF  SWU'S  AM)  FACTOIilKS 


u^KrcKui.'  iiiixj'tl  ill  alx'iit  tlio  mimo  proportion.  In  (Ictormiiiins 
tlu'  proportion  of  inati  rial.-s  for  tho  iiHKr»'gut<',  a  '  irrcl  slioultl  he 
filled  with  Irnkcn  .-'inc,  or  tlic  largest  matoriol,  ami  tlic  iuiiount 
of  water  tliat  ( uii  lie  added  to  ilie  "  irrel  thus  filled,  representn 
tlie  amount  of  jiravcl  or  liiie-erusii  stono  that  it  will  hold. 
This  amount  <f  ^imvel  ami  cni^hed  sioae  .should  then  be  plaeed 
i;i  aiioilur  ^ai  1,  and  the  amount  of  water  that  can  he  udiled 
witlioui  im'rea.-<iii>,'  its  hulk  re|)resents  the  amiuuit  of  .sand  needed. 
In  tl  '•  same  way,  tiie  recpiireil  amount  of  .sand  should  he  placiil 
in  another  ve.sMei,  aiul  the  amount  of  water  that  it  can  he  nuido 
to  hold  will  reprisi'iit  the  re(iuircil  amount  of  eement.  In  order 
to  h  i\('  all  vnids  in  the  largpr  material  well  filled  hy  the  finer 
ones,  It  is  well  in  each  case  to  increase  tho  amount  of  finer 
material  hy  ahcmt  25  per  cent,  over  the  theoretical  amounts 
found  hy  the  above  tests. 

For  makiufr  these  experiments,  it  maybe  more  convenient  to  u.-e 
a  box  of  exactly  one  or  two  cubic  feet  capacity,  and  the  proportion 
by  wei;;ht  may  be  determined  hy  weij;hin>;  the  injrredients  as  found 
from  the  above  experiments.  To  obtain  the  proper  density  for  a 
water  tifiht  floor,  the  proportion  of  cemt  i.i  shoidd  jienerally  be  not 
less  than  1  part  of  cement  with  2\  of  sand  and  41  of  larjter  aggre- 
gate, thoujih  in  some  cases  a  tiglit  floor  has  been  made  with  a  leaner 
mi\t  ure  at  a  pniporticnately  less  cost.  Unscreened  material  from 
a  sand  and  ;riavel  bed  are  sometimes  used,  but  as  their  relative 
iiniounts  Mif  tmrertain,  it  is  usually  better  to  mix  them  in  definite 
known  piHpuitious. 

One  ha'it'l  of  cement  contains  3.8  cu.  ft.,  and  when  mixed  as 
liirected  above,  tho  concrete  will  cover  an  area  of  100  .sq.  ft., 
'2\  in.  dcrp. 

Tlie  lit  pth  (if  excavation  and  filling  under  the  concrete  will 
depend  .  u  the  nature  of  the  subsoil  and  hxal  loiulition,  as  well 
as  on  the  carrj-ing  capacity  of  tho  floor,  a  wet  .-loil  rtHpiiring  a 
greater  deptli  of  broken  stone  for  drainage.  A  heavy  floor  may 
be  strong  enough  to  support  large  macliines  placed  anywhere, 
while  a  lightei' one  may  require  special  machini!  foundations.  As  a 
general  guide  for  laying  concrete  floors,  the  following  din  lions 
are  given.  First,  excavate  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  lo  to  22  in. 
below  the  fmished  unule  level.  Then  sjjre.ul  a  layer  of  broken 
stone  8  to  12.  in  deej),  over  which  lay  4  to  G  in.  of  grav  1  or  crushed 
stone,  thoroughly  tamped  .r.u.  I'olled.  Then  spiead  a  layor  of 
concrete  2  to  4  in.  thii  i    win.  u  uuisl  be  covered  while  il  is  still 


G  HO  I'M)  FLOOliS  165 

grwn  with  a  wearing  surface  \  tu  2  in.  thitk  (1  in.  being  tho 
UHUal)  conipiweil  (»f  cement  and  Haml  in  tlie  pmportion  of  1  to  1, 
or  1  to  2.  It  may  bo  colored  if  desired,  and  Hlio\iid  be  leveled 
off  with  a  straight  edge  aiul  marked  into  H<iiuire8  or  rectangles. 
Shrinkage  cracks  will  then  follow  regular  line.s  in.stead  of  making 
irregular  breakn  through  the  pavement.  The  mixture  for  tlio 
wearing  surface,  .should  be  thin  enough  so  that,  when  laid  and 
troweled  off,  tlic  cement  will  come  to  the  top  ami  form  a  hard 
.smooth  surface  when  dry.  It  in  important  that  the  lower  counse 
be  green  or  mci.st  when  the  wearing  .surface  i.s  appli(>d,  for  if 
dry,  the  upper  course  will  wocm  crack  and  di-sintegnite.  The 
floor  should  be  protected  for  about  thirty-six  hours,  after  which 
it  is  ready  for  use. 

Instead  of  using  12  to  18  in.  of  broken  stone  and  gravel  as 
specified  above,  a  depth  of  5  to  (i  in.  may  be  enough  in  some 
cases  for  light  floors  and  well  drained  8ul)8oil,  tlie  cost  of  this 
lighter  construction  being  12  to  20  cents  per  square  foot.  .\ 
concrete  slab  G  in.  thick  with  J-in.  burfaco  finish,  supported 
on  a  well-drained  base  of  gravel  or  broken  stone,  has  been  found 
satisfactory  for  round  hou.ses,  though  somewhat  difhcult  tu 
repair. 

Tiie  cost  of  a  floor  with  \-h\.  surface  over  a  2-in.  concrete 
base,  is  as  follows: 

(Vment 30  conts  jxt  KijuMro  y;inl 

HtoTK!  and  wiikI 10  <vrit«  |mt  Mnmr.'  yiinl 

^''*"' 21)  Wilts  |HT  Bijuare  yanl 

T"t"l CAt  cents  jmt  s<|uaro  yiinl 

In  the  above,  the  labor  cost  of  surface  finish  is  It  to  1.)  cents  per 
Biiuare  yard,  aiul  for  a  greater  thickness  of  concrete  base,  the 
cost  would  I)e  increased  18  cents  per  scjuare  yard  for  each  addi- 
tional inch  of  thickness.  A  light  floor  with  1-in.  wearing  surface 
and  concrete  only  4  in.  thick,  can  l>e  laid  at  the  rate  of  UK)  »<{.  ft. 
per  (la>  of  eight  hours  for  each  man  em{)loyed,  the  cost  per 
scpiare  foot  being 

Miitorials o  e,.„ts  [kt  s<|U!iri>  f.M)t 

I-abor 2  wilts  |M>r  sipiare  foot. 

Total 11  cents  jht  «<niare  f»K)t 

Assuming  sand  and  gravel  to  cost  $1  to  $1.25  per  cubic  yard, 
and  crushed  limestone,  |1.r>0  to  11.75  per  cubic  yard,  the  cost 


MICROCOPY    RESOLUTION   TEST   CHART 

.ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No    2) 


1.0 


I.I 


1.25 


1^ 

IIIIM 

IIIIM 

1,^ 

i£ 

III  2.2 

i^ 

1^ 

llliM 

i~    , 

II  ''^ 

1.4 

1.6 

^   II 



^  APPLIED  IM^GE     Inc 

S^S  'Rochester.    Ne«    YofH         U609        u'jA 
''^  '''6)    *e;  -  OJOO  -  Phone 

^^  ■  ^16}    288  -    ^989       i^j. 


166     ENGINEEIUXi.  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 

of  c'onfiete  may  be  taken  at  20  to  25  cents  per  cubic  foot,  and  a 
1-in.  surface  finish  at  o  to  G  cents  per  scpiare  foot.  A  1-in.  finisli 
over  a  G-in.  concrete -base  should,  therefore,  cost  15  to  18  cents 
per  square  foot.  A  cement  base  10  in.  hijrh  and  I  in.  thick 
joining  the  wall  and  floor,  costs  12  conts  per  lineal  foot  in  place 
in  large  amounts,  and  15  to  20  cents  per  lineal  foot  for  small(>r 
quantities,  and  the  labor  cost  of  forming  floor  gutters  is  15  to  20 
cents  per  lineal  foot.  When  this  type  of  floor  is  used  in  a  fo>in- 
dry,  the  finished  wearing  surface  must  be  covered  with  4  i>i.  of 
moulding  sand. 

Granolithic  Floors. — '^■ranolithic  floors  in  shops  arc  not  very 
popular  and  yet  as  tlu-y  are  largely  used,  some  rules  are  given 
to  aid  in  securing  the  iK^st  results.  In  order  to  discover  the 
degree  of  favor  with  which  they  have  Ijeen  received,  letters  weie 
sent  a  year  or  two  ago  to  a  large  number  of  factory  owners,  and 
out  of  forty  replies  received,  twenty-six  expressed  a  decided 
preference  for  wood,  with  only  eight  in  favor  of  granolithic, 
while  the  remahiing  six  liked  the  two  kinds  of  floor  equally  well. 
As  the  chief  objection  to  granolithic  floors  is  that  they  rapidly 
convey  heat  away  from  the  l)ody  and  produce  a  feeling  of 
weariness,  it  is  now  an  established  rule  that  these  floors  are 
suitable  only  when  they  are  heatetl.  This  has  been  successfully 
done  in  several  shops,  as  in  the  plants  of  the  Brown  Hoisting 
Machinery  Company  and  the  Morse  Chain  Company.  When 
these  floors  are  not  luxated,  employees  may  wear  shoes  witii 
wooden  soles,  as  is  frcMiucntly  done  at  metallurgical  works  when 
walking  over  hot  metal,  or  where  the  floors  are  constantly  wet. 

Some  other  disadvantages  of  granolithic  floors  are  that  they 
are  dusty  and  wear  into  ruts  and  hollows,  especially  when 
exposed  to  the  action  of  trucks  and  wheels.  The  tendency  to 
dusting  or  to  disintegration  of  the  surface  is  due  to  a  lack  of 
density,  and  can  be  avoided  by  attending  to  the  directions  for 
laying  granolithic  herein  given.  When  laid  out  in  S(iuares  or 
rectangles  the  granolithic  chips  around  the  edges,  and  for  this 
reason  wheels  should  have  rouiuled  treads  or  rubber  tires. 
Concrete  is  also  cliii)i)ed  by  heat,  and  in  conflagrations  it  dis- 
integrates for  a  depth  of  about  half  an  inch  below  the  surface, 
(iranolithic  floors  need  experienced  men  to  lay  them,  for  it 
only  recpiires  a  little  bad  workmanship,  poor  concrete,  insufhcient 
cement,  or  some  foreign  substance  such  as  loam,  to  make  the 
floor  a  failure,  and  early  breaks  and  disintegration  a  certainty. 


GROUSD  FLOORS 


167 


They  are  also  difficult  to  repair,  much  more  so  than  wood,  and 
repairs  occui)/  a  longer  time.  They  are  not  suitable  for  shops 
with  edged  tools,  which  arc  easily  injured,  and  castings  are 
liable  to  break  by  falling.  In  addition  to  these  objections,  it  is 
difficult  to  attach  machinery  to  granolithic  floors. 

The  merits  of  these  floors  depend  largely  upon  the  cire  with 
which  they  are  laid.  They  are  fireproof,  and  are  accepted  as 
waterproof  l)y  the  New  York  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters.  They 
can  be  washed  off  clean  without  injury  and  are  not  disintegrated 
by  such  usage.  When  properly  laid,  they  arc  i:;  pervious  to  oil 
and  are  not  injured  by  it,  though  oil  will,  of  course,  enter  cracks 
which  are  large  enough  to  admit  it.  These  floors  are  cheaper 
than  wood  and  when  heated,  as  can  easily  be  affected  in  upjxT 
stories,  they  no  longer  have  the  objection  of  causing  cold  feet 
and  limbs. 

The  most  approved  mixture  for  granolithic  work  consists  of 
equal  parts  of  cement,  sand,  and  screened  cr  -shed  stone,  from 
a  size  which  will  pass  through  a  20-mesh  up  to  a  ni;.xinnim  size 
of  h  in.  It  is  important  that  the  crushed  stone  be  screened  to 
remove  the  dust.  Some  cement  users  prefer  to  omit  the  sand 
entirely,  using  only  equal  parts  of  cement  and  screened  crushed 
stone.  It  siiould  be  mixed  as  dry  as  can  be  worked,  and  put 
down  in  two  layers  with  a  total  thickness  of  about  I  in.,  the 
top  coat  being  put  on  while  the  under  one  is  wet,  so  they  will 
unite.  To  prevent  edge  chii)ping  and  dust  formation,  the  stiuarea 
should  be  large,  not  less  than  about  20  ft.,  and  where  the  floors 
are  to  be  used  by  horses  for  pulling  loads,  the  surface  should  be 
roughened.  Along  heavy  lines  of  travel,  wheel  plates  of  either 
wrought  or  cast  iron  may  be  set  into  the  floor,  or  a  track  may  be 
made  of  iron  grating  bars  on  edge,  filleil  in  between  with  the 
granolithic  mixture.  These  will  j)revent  the  floor  from  cracking 
and  supply  horses  with  a  good  foothold.  A  recent  and  rapid 
method  of  surfacing  concrete  floors  is  by  the  use  of  the  cement 
gun  worked  by  compressed  air  which  throws  the  mixture  into 
place  through  a  hose.  It  has  been  successfully  used  by  the 
United  States  Government  and  is  proposed  for  some  large 
buildings  in  Chicago. 

Dust  formation  may  be  avoided  in  several  ways,  the  easiest  of 
which  is"  to  give  the  surface  a  hard  troweled  finish.  Dust  may 
also  be  prevented  by  an  occasional  application  of  hot  silicate  of 
soda,  or  a  wash  of  linseed  oil  thinned  with  turpentine  or  naphtha, 


f 


''  'I 
1'  i 


168     EXaiM:ERL\G  OF  SHOPS  A  \D  FACTORIES 

or  l)y  painting.  A  method  of  preventing;  dust  which  is  perliapa 
the  most  effective  of  all,  is  to  cove-  the  floor  with  linoleum 
fastened  down  with  glue,  using  l\  gallons  of  glue  per  100  sq. 
ft.  (,f  floor  surface. 

(Jranolithic  1\  in.  thick,  when  laid  on  a  moist  or  green  hase, 
costs  4\  cents  per  scpiare  foot,  hut  when  pft  down  after  the 
I'ase  has  hardened,  it  will  cost  about  7  cents. 

The  rei)airing  of  these  floors  is  also  important,  requiring  the 
services  of  skilled  workmen.  Main  aisles  or  passageways, 
when  they  l)ecome  worn,  nuiy  be  reinforced  with  an  additional 
layer  of  granolithic  over  the  old  one.  IJroken  edges  may  be 
rei)aired  with  a  mixture  of  soft  asphalt,  the  bonding  being  affected 
by  heating  the  injured  surface  with  a  blow  torch.  This  method 
is  better  than  patching  with  cement  paste,  though  not  as  per- 
manent as  the  process  descrii)ed  later.  The  most  approved 
method  of  repairing  is  to  cut  away  the  granolithic  with  a  sand 
blast  or  with  chisels  to  the  bottom  of  the  break,  until  the  aggre- 
gate is  exposed  enough  to  give  a  bond.  Then  treat  the  surface 
with  acids  aiul  wash  with  a  hose  to  remove  the  dust,  after  which, 
t he  surface  should  be  covered  wit  h  a  thin  grout.  The  new  grano- 
lithic  material  should  then  l)e  api)lied  while  the  grout  is  still  wet, 
and  the  patch  should  be  kept  protected  and  moist  f(.r  about  a 
week,  when  the  repairt-.l  floor  is  again  n^ady  for  u.se. 

Asphalt  Floors.— Asphalt  floors  have  many  commendable 
features,  though  costing  more  than  some  other  kinds.  They  are 
waterproof;  have  no  dust;  are  not  volatile  like  tar;  are  elastic 
enough  to  j)revent  crack  formation;  can  be  kejjt  clean;  and  arc 
comfortable'  to  walk  upon.  They  do  not  tire  the  feet  of  workmen 
like  concrete  or  ])rick  and  do  no!  wear  away  but  siniplv  compress 
They  are  n()t  injuivd  by  frost  or  thaws,  and  should  last  at  least 
ten  years  without  repyaiis. 

Hock  asphalt  is  limestone  impregnated  with  8  to  17  per  cent, 
bitumci.  It  is  made  into  asphalt  mastic  for  commercial  use^ 
by  first  grinding  it  to  a  i)owder  and  then  heating  it  for  hve  hours 
in  a  kett'e  at  a  temperature  of  ;j:,0°  F.  with  8  per  cent,  of  Trinidad 
asphalt  added  to  prevent  its  burning.  It  is  then  moulded  into 
blocks  weighing  oO  to  00  lb.,  each  block  having  the  name  of  the 
mine  moulded  thereon.  The  fini.shed  product  contains  II  per 
cent,  of  bitumen  and  8()  per  cent,  carbonate  of  lime. 

It  is  prepared  for  floors  by  mixing  it  with  Trinidad  asphalt 
and  sand  in  the  following  proportions  by  weight; 


'■'iFfW"- 


'mmrs- 


.'»■•*'' ' «"?---' 


^ 


GROUND  FLOORS  169 

Broken  mastic  blocks f,o  per  cent. 

Irinulud  uspluilt 4  ,„,r  cent 

I'ino  Kruvel  un,l  sa.ui ;{,i  j^.^  p,.„t. 

''"*'*' 100  i)cr  cent. 

The  mixture  is  tlion  lioatod  to  a  toniporatiirc  of  300  to  400°  F 
for  about  five  liours  and  conscautiy  stirred,  after  whicli  the 
mixture  is  tai^en  out  and  spread  on  the  floor  to  a  thickness  of 
1  in.  It  is  then  covered  with  sand  and  rubbed  to  a  smooth 
finish.  ^  A  base  for  this  floor  may  eonsi.st  of  a  hiyer  of  concrete 
3  to  4  in.  thick,  or  a  course  of  plank  on  sleepers,  the  plank  l)eing 
overlaid  with  tarred  felt  or  sheathing  paper.  Asphalt  is  also 
moulded  into  paving  blocks  -1  by  4  by  12  in.,  and  when  laid  with 
these  blocks,  floors  are  more  easily  repaired. 

Asphalt  has  several  imitations  made  of  tar  and  crushed  lime- 
stone which  are  of  poor  (luality,  for  like  other  t.tr  products  the 
tar  evaporates  and  the  floor  cracks.  Asphalt  floors  are' not 
suitable  in  shops  where  oil  collects  or  drips,  for  tlie  asphalt  is 
softened  and  destroyed  by  oil.  A  1-in.  floor  without  the  base 
costs  from  10  to  18  cents  per  square  foot. 

A  substitute  for  asphalt  paving  which  may  be  suitable  also 
for  shop  floors  is  now  extensively  used  on  streets  at  Ann  Arbor 
and  is  giving  good  service.  Over  a  base  of  4  to  0  in.  of  gravel- 
concrete,  tar  or  bitumen  is  spread,  using  a  half  gallon  per  scpiare 
yard,  and  into  this  is  rolleil  a  layer  of  sand  J  in.  thick.  The 
wearing  surface  comi)lete,  costs  only  .")  cents  per  square  yard,  and 
the  whole  pavement  about  80  cents  per  stiuare  yard,  with  labor 
at  .'52  per  day  and  cement  ut  SI  per  barrel. 

Brick  Floors.— A  fine  basement  floor  over  dry  soil  is  made  by 
first  placing  a  12-in.  layer  of  well  compacted  sand  rolled  and 
leveled,  over  which  a  course  of  brick  is  laid  Hat,  and  on  tliis 
anoth(>r  layer  of  brick  on  eilge,  both  courses  being  jointed  with 
cement  mortar  and  grouted  full. 

The  floors  of  foundry  pits  should  have  two  layers  of  brick 
over  a  G-in.  concrete  base,  and  the  i)it  walls  should  be  one  brick 
or  8  m.  thick,  all  laid  in  cement  mortar,  i  or  boiler  house  floors' 
the  bricks  may  be  laid  flat  with  diagonal  joints,  giving  a  pattern 
effect.  There  is  no  better  floor  for  round  houses  than  l)rick  for 
when  injured  they  are  easily  repaired.  The  pressure  of  heavy 
jacks  and  the  rolling  about  of  trucks  and  wheels  have  been  found 
to  cause  frequent  breakage  to  round  house  floors;  and  when  made 
of  brick,  they  can  be  easily  replaced  by  removing  only  a  small 


~.q-_>  . 


I')' 

i  !■ 


170     ENGISEKHING  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 

portion.  Wood  floors  wear  out  too  quickly,  and  concrete 
cracks  and  disintcfiratcs  under  heavy  loads.  A  timber  base 
should  be  asoided,  the  repairing  of  which  would  necessitate  the 
removal  of  a  larger  area. 

The  grounil  should  be  excavated  to  a  depth  of  8  in.  and  should 
then  lie  well  rammed,  all  alluvial  soil  being  removed  and  de- 
pi-cssions  filled  uj)  with  sand  and  {rravel.  A  4-in.  kyer  of  sand 
should  then  be  spread  and  tampci.  after  which  hard  bricks  are 
laid  on  edge.  If  a  waterproof  floor  is  needed,  the  bricks  should  be 
grouted  and  coven  d  with  tar.  As  slag  and  cinder  usually  costs 
the  railroad  company  nothing,  they  are  frequently  used  as  a  bed 
for  these  pavements  instead  of  sand  and  gravel.  The  floors  of 
engine  pits  should  be  crowned  two  incl.vjs  at  the  center  for  drain- 
age, and  the  walls  should  b  t-apped  with  timber  at  each  .side  of 
the  pit.  These  floors  usually  cost  from  85  cents  to  $1.15  per 
scjuare  yard. 

Recommended  Types. — The  types  of  floor  which  have  been 
found  from  experience  to  be  the  best  for  shops  of  different  kinds 
are  given  in  tlie  following  tabulation: 

Annealing  rooms Brick  or  cast-iron  plates. 

Car  shops  and  car  liouses Concrete  base  with  granolitliic  finish. 

Cleaning  rtwms Cast-iron  plates. 

Cupola  floors Inverted  ste<'l  channels,  rough  rolled  or 

cast-iron  plates. 

Forgo  shoij.s Earth  or  cinder  floors. 

Foundry  pouring  floors Cast-iron    plates  or  brick  on  plank  and 

sand. 

Moulding  floors Concrete  or  brick. 

Machine  shops Creosoted  wood  blocks  or  plank  on  con- 
crete ba.se. 

Offices Miiple   or  yellow  pine  on  sleejx?rs  over 

concrete. 

Power  house,  Engine  rooms Concrete  with  cement  or  tile  finish. 

Power  l;ouse.  Boiler  rooms  Concrete  with  cement  or  brick  on  edge. 

Toilets Concrete  with  cement  finish. 

Wash  rooms Concrete  with  cement  surface. 

The  above  are  generally  the  best,  though  in  some  cases,  such 
as  round  houses  and  machine  shops,  preference  and  practice  has 
a  considerable  variation.  Round  house  floors  have  received 
much  attention  from  the  railroad  companies,  and  .several  types 
are  extensively  used,  including  cinders  oi  clay,  plank,  brick,  anil 
concrete.  These  floors  receive  very  hard  Usage  from  hydraulic 
jr  jka  and  the  removal  of  trucks  and  other  pi..io,  and  a,  floor  of 


GROUND  FLOORS 


171 


vitrified  paving  brick  is  usually  prcforrcd;  for  as  previously 
stated,  when  damaged,  it  can  easily  be  repaired  by  removing 
only  the  injured  part.  The  repairing  of  timber  or  concrete 
floors  is  more  difficult,  for  a  larger  area  must  be  taken  up.  Wood 
blocks  lack  resistance,  and  when  laid  over  plunks,  they  are  sub- 
ject to  the  same  objection  as  other  timber  floors. 

Machine  shop  floors  have  been  the  subject  of  many  experiments. 
They  usually  receive  hard  service,  especially  in  erecting  shops 
wh"re  loads  are  dragged  along  the  floor  by  the  lifting  cranes  and 
machinery  parts  are  piled  up  high,  thus  subjecting  the  floors 
to  heavy  weight.  Brick,  concrete  and  asphalt  conduct  heat  away 
from  human  bodies  and  are,  therefore,  uncomfortable;  and  shaqi 
edged  tools  ar-  injured  by  falling  on  such  hard  surfaces.  Grit 
and  dust  rising  from  them  are  injurious  to  machines,  especially 
in  the  bearings.  For  these  reasons,  some  kind  of  wood  floor  is 
usually  preferred. 


CHAPTER  XTV 
UPPER  FLOORS 

Slow  Burning  Wood  Floors.— Tlie  ossi-ntial  priiuiple  of  this 
type  of  oonstruetion  i.s  to  u.so  tlic  fewest  nuniluT  of  huge  framing 
pieces,  ho  that  tiicy  may  not  easily  "oe  tacked  by  fire.  It  has 
been  well  proven  by  numerous  fire^  .  wood  framing  so  ar- 
ranged is  a  better  fire  risk  than  unpj  .ted  .ste.'l  framing,  which 
collapses  quickly  under  heat. 

Heams  siiould  not  be  closer  than  5  to  10  ft.  apart,  and  the  pro- 
per spacing  may  be  found  from  the  following  table  giving  the 
required  thickness  of  plank  for  various  spans  and  loads. 

TA  ni.I.    XV.-SAFE  r.n ADS  IN-  POU.VDS  IT.R  SQUARK  FOOT  FOR  SPRUCE  PI  WK 
«»F  VARIOUS  Si'ANS  AXU  TIIICK.NK.SSIOS,  FOR  I.I.MITi;!)  DKFI.KCno.VS  " 


l.nMil  per  si|ii;iri' 
fniil  siiptTficial 


Span  ill  fiH't 


12 


II 


4(». 


IIX).., 

i2r,. . , 
IM. . . 
175 
-•(KJ  . . 
2Jr,... 
I'.Vt. . . 
27-.. . . 
.•JIX). . . 
.ILTi. . . 
.).".(>. . . 

:i7o. . , 

100. . , 


.1.1 


1..' 
1. 1 
I..-, 

l.U 
2.  t 

J.(> 
-' .  1» 

.i.l 
■J .  .■! 
:) .  .■) 
.i .  (i 
.'i.s 
t.o 

1.2 

l..t 


1. 1 
i.r. 

1..S 

2.:t 

2.6 
2.!) 

.'i.l 
.i.  I 
.■t.o 
:!.,■> 
I.l) 

1.2 
1.  I 
t.li 

I.S 
.j.l) 
5.1 


i.n    2.1 


I  .It 

2.1 
2.7 

.'t.o 
:i.  I 

.'i.7 
1.0 
1.2 


1.1 

•1.7 
I.!) 
5 . 2 
.') .  I 
.1 .  li 

.-..,s 
6.0 


2.  I 

;!.n 

.'!.  I 
.'t.S 


:t.  1 

l.:t 
1.7 


2.1 

2.,S 
:i.() 
.'i.s 
I.l 

•l.,S 


2.6 

.'i.O 

:) .  :i 
1.2 

l.,s 
.■>.;! 


2..S 
.'! .  2 
.'1.6 

i.r, 


:!.i 
:t . .". 

.'i . !) 

.■i.o 

j.6 


■t.i 

■.i.s 

1.2 
'..1 
6.0 


1 . .'. 

5.2 

5.S   i 1 

I.s 

5.  1 

0,0    ■ 1 

1             i 

.'>.  1 

0.0 





.'> .  6 

' i 

.'i  M 

1 

6.1 

■ 



riank  when  laid  flat,  should,  for  thicknesses  of  2J  in.  or 
less  have  tongue  and  groove,  and  for  greater  thicknesses  should 
for  economy  be  connected  by  splines.  An  excellent  solid  floor 
IS  obtained  by  placing  boards  on  edge,  and  spiking  them  together, 

172 


V PI' Eli  FLOORS  173 

tho  upper  mirfiiro  hcinj.'  rovcrod  with  1/2-in.  far  mortar  before 
laying  the  top  i-ourse  of  Ixmrds. 

The  niorUr  ahould  consist  of  one  part  of  tar  with  two  parts  of 
sand.  The  extra  stren>;th  of  continuity  is  secureil  by  staggering 
the  board  joints,  preferably  at  the  point  of  contra  flexure,  about 
one  quarter  way  between  the  bearings.  The  l)est  material  for 
wood  beams  is  hard  or  yellow  pine.  The  lower  corners  should  be 
champfered,  and  in  brick  walls,  beams  should  h.ivc  cast-iron  bear- 
ing plates  with  flanges,  one  to  anchor  them  to  the  masonry,  and 
another  fitted  into  the  beam.  The  uj)per  end  of  the  beams  above 
the  bearings  should  be  mitred,  to  prevent  inner  leverage  on  the 
wall,  in  case  the  beams  collapse  by  fire. 

Wood  floors  should  always  have  an  upper  wearing  surface 
which  can  be  removed  as  often  as  it  becomes  worn.  Yellow  pine 
is  the  best,  though  maple  and  oak  are  sometimes  used.  The 
Pdges  were  formerly  matched  or  tongue  ami  grooved,  but  owing 
to  the  difficulty  of  replacing  this  kind  of  floor,  and  its  liability  to 
splitting  at  the  edge  under  trucks  or  other  loads,  square-edged 
flooring  is  now  preferred.  A  thickness  of  I  in.  is  quite  as  good 
as  IJ  in.,  for  when  the  floor  is  worn  enough  to  need  renewal 
of  the  thinner  boards,  the  thicker  board  would  also  have  needed 
renewal. 

In  order  to  prevent  water  from  leaking  through  the  floor,  there 
should  be  two  or  tJiree  layers  of  tar  or  rosin  paper  between  the 
upper  and  lower  coum«s,  and  the  last  layer  of  paper  should  pre- 
ferably be  mopped  with  tar.  Asbestos  pajjer  for  this  purpose 
has  the  additional  advantage  of  being  fireproof.  Wood  must 
remain  unpainted  until  the  timber  is  thoroughly  seasoned,  for 
if  applied  too  soon,  it  only  promotes  decay. 

The  cost  of  wood  floors  with  ■ -in.  maple  over  3-in.  plank  on 
8  by  12-in.  yellow  pine,  6  ft.  apart,  is  as  follows: 

WocKi  hoanis 5  f,  50  ,„.r  .s,,„aro 

Iron  stirrups 3  ,,0  j,^.^  s,,uHre 

^"''•'"'■^ 2.50  per  square 

3-'"-  t''""!^ 12.00  per  square 

P^P^-" M  per  s,|uaro 

Factory  maple  flooriiiR 7.00  iH>r  s.,uarfi 

'^"'*"1 Wl  ,50  per  -mare 

The  Sessions  Foundry  at  Bristol,  Coim,  has  .3-in.  ton-ue  an.l 
groove  yellow  pine  on  12  by  18-in.  yellow  pine  beams,  while  a 


171     i:SGISEEHlS(i  OF  SHOPS  A  \D  FACTORIES 

Rullcry  floor  in  tlic  Granpcr  Foundry  at  I'rovidcjico,  (loHigncd  by 
tlic  writi'r,  li.is  :i  doiililc  wood  loor  on  S  l)y  12-iii.  liciiniH  only  5 
ft.  apart,  .sii|i|mii  led  on  ll.'-in.  steel  Ix-ains. 

These  floors  should  '.le  protocteil  uj^ainst  fire-  by  un  adequate 
Kpiinkling  system. 

Wood  Floors  with  Steel  Beams. — A  low  rost  wood  floor  which 
is  lacking  in  lire  resistinj;  (pialities,  is  nuule  by  placing  heavy 
wood  joi^is  say  '.i  by  10  in.,  1(5  to  If)  in.  apart — which  are  sup- 
ported on  steel  beams  or  riveted  girders  10  to  l.l  ft.  on  centers. 
T!u'  cost  of  wood  \Vork  in  the  floor,  with  two  layers  of  pine,  J 
and  2h  in.  is  \2  to  15  cents  per  diiuare  foot  erected,  not  in- 
cluding any  steel. 

.\s  framing  timber  is  l)ecoming  more  scarce  every  year,  steel 
joists  are  often  used  instead  of  wood,  and  this  type  is  now  ac- 
cepted by  the  insurance  companies  as  a  substitute  for  .slow 
liurning  wood  construction,  lieam  spacing  in  this  type  can  bo 
reduced  to  '.i  or  4  ft.  with  u  c"!  responding  reduction  in  the 
thickness  of  plank.  The  steel  joists  are  capped  with  wood 
spiking  i)ieces,  about  4  by  ">  in.,  which  are  hook  bolted  to  the 
beams.  The  beams  may  be  protected  from  fire  by  a  suspended 
ceiling  of  expanded  metal  ami  plaster,  and  if  extra  fire  precaution 
is  needed,  an  U])per  wearing  surface  of  asphalt  nuiy  be  use  '  in- 
stead of  wood.  Suspended  ceilings  are  only  a  ])artial  protection, 
for  in  great  conflagrations,  such  us  at  San  FrancLco,  it  was  found 
that  these  ceilings  break. 

Triangular  Sheet  Steel  Floor  (Buckeye). — Several  forina  of 
sheet  metal  trough  floors  are  available,  most  of  them  having  the 
merit  of  maximum  stiffnessforthe  amount  of  material  used.  One 
of  these,  made  in  ( )hio  and  known  as  the  Buckeye  floor,  has  metal 
trough  2h  in.  deej),  and  including  the  concrete  filling  and  IJ 
in.  wearing  surface,  weighs  about  3")  lb.  per  scpuire  foot. 

Wi:iGIIT     OV     GATA'ANIZr.D     TRIWCOr.AR     TROUGT{     FLOORI.VG,     2i    IN. 

iii;i:r,  ix  I'ou.vus  1'i:r  mx)  sq.  i-t. 

Ghuko 

No.  Ill 38f)  II).  por  square 

IS     ,'51,'?  II).  per  square 

?      241  ]l).  jx>r  square 

22 20111).  porsiiuaro 

24 168  11).  por  .«quare 

The  sheets  an'   made  in  lengths  up  to   10  ft.  and  in  uniform 
widths  of  21  in. 


UPPER  FLOORS 


175 


^  Multiplex  Floor.— Another  cxcpllont  wlioot  motui  trough  floor 
IS  that  known  as  the  Multiplex.  Tlie  tnuighs  are  nimle  of  >  i„ 
uniform  width,  and  depth  of  2,  L'i,  li  and  4  in.  either  painted  or 
galvanized.  Stock  length.s  vary  anywhere  from  o  to  10  ft  and 
gauge  from  Xo.  Ki  to  X„.  24.  They  ar.>  laid  diivtly  on  the  J«.,r 
beams  and  arc  filled  with  concrete  to  a  depih  of  2  in.  above  the 
metal,  but  eann( .:  ho  pla.stered  on  the  under  side  and  mu.st  he 
kept  painted.  If  a  wood  wearing  surface  i.s  desired,  wood  nailing 
»tnp.s  must  he  embedded  in  the  concrete  al)ove  the  metal  or 
these  may  be  omitted,  and  a  granolithic  surface  used  instead. 

TABLi:  XVI  -.SAH:  lO.UlS  <..V  .MUr.TIPI.EX  STEEL  FtOOR.S  WITH  CONCRETK 
Hl.U.Vi  1   J.V  AHOVK  THE  METAI, 


Metal  gatiRo 

I)c|.th 

WViglit 

18 
17.3 

4  ft. 

i  Oft. 

i 

550 
352 

1      1 
8  ft. 

1      i 

;   3(X) 

198 

10  ft. 

20 
24 

1 

1260 
792 

185 
127 

20 
24 

31   , 

17.5 
16 

1115 
720 

485 
320 

1  2<i5 
180 

165 
115 

20 
21 

3 

15.3 
14  0 

970 
5,-iO 

420 
244 

230 

137  i 

145 

88 

20      1 
24      1 

21   1 

13.4 
12.2 

675 

433   1 

295 
192 

100 
108 

100 
69 

Metal  Arches.— .Vrche.s  of  stiffened  .sheet  metal  l)etwcen  .steel 
beams  with  concrete  filling    ibovc  them,   arc  extensively  u.sed 
They  have  the  objection  common  to  all  kinds  of  expo.sed  metal 
that  they  must  be  kept  painted,  or  they  will  be  destroved  I'.y 
rust.     No.  18  gauge  corrugated  iron  with  a  10-in.  rise,  between 
beams  G  ft.  apart,  has  been  tested  with  a  load  of  1000  lb    per 
square  foot,  and  for  beam  spacing  of  9  ft,  with  3  in.  of  concrete 
over  the  metal  at  the  center,  it  will  safely  carry  a  load  of  200  lb 
per  squai.  'oot.     The  strength  of  this  floor  can  be  increased  by 
making  a  greater  crown  thickness  of  concrete.     It  is,  therefore 
strong,  apart  frowi  the  filling  anove  it,  which,  for  tlio  sake  of 
lightness,  13  sometimes  made  of  cinders.     If  cement  and  stone 
concrete  is  used  instead  of  cinders,  the  strength  is  greatly  in- 


17(1     l-JXai.MJhlilM!  OF  SHOPS  AM)  FACTO  HI  US 

cna.scd.  A  floor  of  tliis  kind  in  an  online  houne  (h'sintH-ci  by  tlie 
writer  cost  otl  cjMitH  ptT  8i|uaro  foot  in  plu(«'.  Dovctiiiloil  inotul 
issniiictinicsusod  instead  of  corrugated  iron.witii  thefals<'  iinpre.s- 
8ioa  tlnit  it  can  safely  he  plastered  on  tlu'  under  side.  Tlli^^ 
product  otTern  insufficient  grip  to  hold  plaster,  for  a  large  building 
in  wliiili  it  was  thus  used  was  inspected  by  the  writer  after  tho 
plaster  had  fallen.  The  fall  of  so  nnicii  heavy  material  not  only 
injured  the  machinery,  and  otiier  ctmtents  of  the  buildinR  l)Ut 
also  endan;;ered  th((  lives  of  the  workmen.  \o.  24  gaufto 
dovetailed  sheets  cost  $8  to  810  per  100  scj.  ft.  at  the  place  of 
manufacture,  and  weifjh  1(>;}  lb. 

Metal  Trough  Floors. — A  much  stronger  and  heavier  metal 
floor  is  obtained  by  usin.j,  troughs  made  of  rolled  shapes  riveted 
together.  Thes«'  are  in.  re  used  for  very  lieavy  stTvice  uh  on 
bridge  floors,  but  are  occasionally  appropriate  in  l)uildings,  tho 
o(fic(!  of  the  I'encoj'd  Iron  Works,  having  several  floors,  nuideof 
Lintlsay  troughs  painted  a  light  blue  on  the  umler  side.  Floor 
sections  made  with  sloping  sides  are  liable  to  vary  slightly  in 
width  when  riveted,  and  it  is,  therefore,  difficult  to  nuitch  the 
connecting  holes  in  the  supporting  girders.  For  this  reason, 
vertical  sides  are  geiu'rally  preferred.  To  economize  in  head 
room,  the  see  'ions  should  rest  on  shelf  angles,  fastened  to  the 
girder  webs  rather  than  bearing  on  their  upper  flanges.  Vertical 
troughs  in  small  sizes  are  most  conveniently  made  of  Z's  and 
plates,  but  for  greater  de[>ths  they  are  composed  of  plates  and 
anj;les.  Fi.  >r  troughs  vary  in  weight  from  15  to  10  lb.  per  square 
foot,  and  tables  of  safe  loads  may  be  found  in  the  luuiubook  of 
the  Carnegie  Steel  Company. 

Plate  Floors. — Cast-iron  or  rohed-steel  plates  roughened  on  the 
upper  side  are  much  used  in  certain  places  exposed  tt)  fire,  such 
as  cupola  floors,  or  around  furnace  openings.  Rolled  steel 
plates  are  made  in  thicknesses  of  -j*;-  in.  to  ^  in.,  weighing 
l;i.8  u)  21.4  11).  per  scpuire  foot.  Cast-iron  plates  can  be  made 
heavier  and  stifTer  •h:i:i  roUeil  ones  and  can  be  roughened  enough 
on  the  surface  .  >  jirevent  men  from  slipping.  They  are  exten- 
sively used  in  foundries  and  for  charging  floors. 

Brick  Arch  Floors. —  Hrick  or  terra  cotta  arch  floors  are  heavy 
and  expensive  and  not  well  suited  to  factory  buildings  subject 
to  jars  and  vibrations.  The  movement  of  heavy  machines  is 
liable  to  loosen  the  bricks  and  cause  them  to  fall  Brick  arches 
are  laid  in  single  rings  1  in.  thick  on  temporary  wooden  forms, 


-i^ri 


Vl'I'ICU  FLOORS 


177 


the  tlistaiu-e  In-twcMMi  iK-iiiriH  not  oxcocling  t  I.,  :,  f(  ,,,1,1  the 
urch  riso  at  IciiHl  ,)iic-.iKli|l  .f  the  Hpaii.  riu"  filliiij  md  tloor 
al)<>v.«  thi'  arch  may  l.i-  Hiiiuiar  to  that  iiso<l  in  otUvr  arch  f.>rtim, 

"'"'  '■ ■'■<'»«•  ""ly  l)(>  used  for  fillinir.  with  a  fuii.sli  oitht-r  of  wood 

boards  on  nailing  Htrijw,  or  granolitliic. 


13 


m-^^^sim ^ 


CHAPTER  XV 
CONCRETE  UPPER  FLOORS 

Concrete  floors  are  of  three  general  kinds. 

1.  Those  without  slabs  but  with  concrete  beams  and  wood 
floors. 

2.  Those  with  concrete  beams  and  shibs. 

3.  Those  with  fiat  concrete  slal)S  only,  supported  directly  on 
columns. 

The  first  of  these  types  with  no  slabs  but  with  concrete  beams 
supportiufj;  .^  doubl(>  layer  of  floor  planks  (Fijj;.  79)  is  very  eco- 
nomical in  cost.  It  is  also  lighter  than  a  concrete  floor,  for  while 
this  material  weighs  110  lb.  per  cubic  foot,  wood  does  not  exceed 
50  lb.  A  four-story  concreti;  ofTu-e  building  in  Massachusetts, 
with  T-beams  without  slabs  and  two  layers  of  wood  floor,  cost 
with  the  eciuipment  of  lighting,  heating,  toilets  and  partition.^ 
only  9.2  cents  per  cubic  foot,  or  $1.30  per  square  foot  of  floor 
area.  Without  eciuipment,  the  cost  including  foundation,  walls, 
floors  and  roofs,  was  only  4\  cents  per  cubic  foot,  or  SO. 03  per 
scjuare  foot  of  floor  area.  Wood  nailing  pieces  were  secured  to 
each  side  of  the  concrete  beams,  and  between  it  and  the  lower 
course  (if  plank  was  a  thin  filling  of  cinders.  A  five-story  con- 
crete factory  hi  the  same  state',  50  ft.  wide  and  300  ft.  long,  of 
the  same  general  type  as  the  last,  cost  without  e(iui])ment,  only 
7.<i  cents  i)er  cubic  foot,  with  a  total  saving  of  $24,000  over  a 
concrete  design  with  beams  and  slabs. 

A  floor  of  tlic  same  type  in  a  knitting  mill  in  the  central  part 
of  New  York  state,  cost: 

2-in.  hemlock  plank $.07    jht  scjuare  foot 

I)o!>(Ieniiig  felt 005  per  sfiuare  foot 

7,  S-iii.  floor  and  fiiiisli 09    per  sfumre  foot 

I'latster  board 02")  per  siiuaro  foot 

'I'otal $.19    per  square  foot 

For  the  same  place  a  floor  with  reinforc'  concrete  slab  and 
wood  top,  would  h.'ive  ('OKt; 

178 


^-.:f  .""f^.-'S^Kt,-' 


xraefi  7.^3' 


CONCRETE  UPPER  FLOORS  179 

Roinforco,]  concrete  slab ,40  per  square  foot 

Nailing  stnps  in  place o'*  rl.,  .  \ 

Upper  floor,  finished "w    ^''""   "* 

Plasterunder 09  per  square  foot 

04  per  square  foot 

Total ~„  ' 

5 .  56  per  square  foot 

or  about  three  times  as  much  as  that  used 

Generally,  concrete  buildings  with  timber  floors  but  without 
any  s  ab,  cost  15  to  2o  per  cent,  less  than  when  a  slab  is  used 
and  they  cost  less  than  woo.i  mill  construction 

Floors  with  Beams  and  Slabs.-This  type  constitutes  by  far  the 

_  ^Bridging:  Joist 

^^ 

Box             \j           Box 
G\tiet   J^^^ ^      Jo'rt 

Mould  for  Bottom  of  Girder 

Fig.  85.— Metal  covered,  wood  form  boxes. 
largest  class  of  floors  in  concrete  buildings.     Apart  from  shop- 
made   floor  sections   and  joists,   which  have   previously   been 
described    under   "Separately    Moulded    Members"    there   are 


Fig.  85a,— Steel  forms  for  concrete  floors, 
many  systems  of  monolithic  beam  and  slab  construction  A 
type  which  IS  quto  economical  is  that  used  in  buildings  for 
the  Lniversity  of  Wisconsin.  For  the  purpose  of  forming  ril>s 
inverted  boxes  were  used  instead  of  the  usual  f.u-ms,  and  they 
were  so  arranged  as  to  make  a  system  of  inverted  beams  and 
joists,  Fig.  80.  These  box(>s  were  covered  witli  sheet  metal  and 
wereuscd  thirty  times  or  more.  The  total  floor  area  in  one 
building  was  4500  sq.  ft.,  and  provision  was  made  for  a  live 


^ifeL-.^'fl 


180    p:.\Gi\Ki:iii\G  OF  SHOPS  and  factories 

li)iul  of  200  11).  per  scuuirc  foot.     The  itemized  cost  of  floors  in 
tliis  buildlag,  jicr  stjuare  foot  of  floor  was  as  follows: 

Concrete 10 .  .54  cents  per  square  foot 

Kc'inforcinR  steel 7 .  86  cents  per  sciuaro  foot 

Timlwr  for  supports 6 .  CO  cents  per  square  foot 

Wo(k1  Ijoxes,  1/15  of  cost 72  cents  per  stiuare  foot 

Erecting  sujiports  and  boxes 5.54  cents  per  square  foot 

Placing  concrete  and  reinforcement.  .  .   4.44  cents  per  square  foot 
Removing  supports  and  boxes 1.10  cents  ]K>r  scjuare  foot 


Total 30 .  80  cents  j>er  square  foot 

A  sj'stcm  of  beams  ))hued  dose  together,  with  sloping  sides, 
forming  a  heavy  rilbed  slab  (Fig.  8(1) ,  was  used  in  the  balcony 
floor  of  a  machine  siiop  for  tiie  Fairbank-Morsc  Company  at 
Toronto,  Canada.     The  beams  were  22  in.  wide  at  the  top  and 


Settion    of    Balcony    Floor 


Section  -of  Roof  Girder 


Fio.  80. — Machine  shop  of  Fairbanks-Morse  plant,  Toronto,  Canada. 

G  in.  at  the  bottom,  and  were  placed  3  ft.  apart  on  centers, 
each  beam  being  reinforced  with  six  rods,  \\  in.  in  diameter. 
A  roof  over  tiie  gallery  was  of  tiie  same  general  type  with,  a  3-in. 
slab  on  beams  of  the  same  size  placed  8  ft.  apart.  The  tendency, 
however,  in  recent  years  is  to  use  heavier  slabs  and  fewer  beams, 
and  it  is  now  common  to  find  beams  10  to  20  ft.  apart,  at  the 
columns  only,  without  intermediate  joists. 

Slabs  may  be  supported  at  all  four  sides  or  at  two  sides  only, 


CONCRETE  UPPER  FLOORS  181 

the   first  being  the  strongest  and  most  economical  arrangement 
With  four  side  supports,  the  reinforcing  stool  will  lie  in  two  direc- 
tions at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  for  economy,  the  slabs 
should  be  continuous  over  their  supports.     Another  economical 
plan  is  to  use  slabs  8  to  12  ft.  long,  supported  on  lines  of  beams 
resting  directly  on  the  columns  without  joists  or  cross  girders 
Koof  framing  is  usually  made  of  the  same  dimensions  as  the 
floors,  for  extra  stories  can  then  be  added  if  desired  without 
removing  the  roof  or  strengthening  it.     In  some  cases,  however 
as  in  the  machine  shop  at  Toronto,  mentioned  above,  the  roof 
framing  is  made  lighter  than  the  floor. 

Wire  mesh  or  expanded  metal  is  more  convenient  for  slab 
reinforcement  than  loose  bars,  for  it  is  made  at  a  factory  and  can 
be  spread  out  in  sheets.  No.  10  gauge  expanded  metal  with 
4-m.  mesh  is  often  used  and  costs  $3.50  per  100  sq.  ft.  Rein- 
forcing metal  in  slabs  generally  costs  3i  to  4^  cents  per 
square  foot  of  floors  when  designed  for  a  live  load  of  100  lb.  per 
foot.  Wire  is  economical  because  of  its  high  tensile  strength 
Triangular  mesh  with  strands  of  No.  4  wire  4i  in.  apart^ 
united  by  a  weave  of  lighter  wire  welgiis  57  lb.  per  100  sq  ft' 
and  costs  $2.30  at  the  mill.  It  is  shipped  in  rolls  up  to  58  in  in 
width  and  GOO  ft.   in  length. 

Concrete   slabs   may   have   wearing  surfaces  of  granolithic 
boards  or  asphalt.     A  granolithic  surface,  as  previously  descril)ed 
under  "  Ciround  Floors,  "  is  by  far  the  cheapest  though  uncomfort- 
able to  walk  upon.     When  a  wood  floor  is  laid  over  a  concrete 


TJ 


1%  Maple 


3  P.ank 


Reinforced  Concrete 


m 


Via.  87. 


slab,  the  slab  should  first  be  covered  with  two  lavers  of  tar  felt 
or  heavy  paper  in  pitch,  or  the  lower  course  of  plank  may  be 
bedded  on  tarred  sand  as  was  done  in  the  Blake  and  Johnson 
factory  at  Waterbury,  Conn.  A  shop  at  Woonsocket  de- 
signed by  Mr.F.  W.  Dean,  has  nailing  strips  built  into  the6-in 
concrete  .slab,  and  to  this  is  spikod  a  lower  course  of  3-in  plank 
which    18   covered   with   |-in.    maple    (Fig.    87),     The  screeds 


182     ENGINEERING  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


should  1)0  creosott'd  or  coated  with  tar  to  prevent  dry  rot.  An 
upper  layer  1  in.  thick  of  sawdu.st  concrete  into  which  nails  can 
be  driven,  has  sometimes  been  j)laced  over  the  lower  slab  and 
beneath  the  floor  boards.  It  should  be  made  of  equal  parts 
by  volume  of   cement  and   sawdust   with   two   parts  of  sand. 

Matclied  factory  maple  floorin}:;  |  in.  thick  over  2-in.  spruce 
costs  13  cents  per  S(|uare  foot,  and  J-in.  yellow  i)ine  over  2-in. 
spruce  costs  9  cents  per  scpiare  foot.  Nailing  strips  or  sleepers 
cost  4  cents  per  lineal  foot  in  place,  and  2-  to  3-in.  cinder  fill 
between  the  strips  costs  3  to  -1  cents  per  scjuare  foot. 

An  asphalt  wearing  surface  is  both  lighter  and  cheaper  than 
wood.  The  concrete  should  first  be  washed  with  a  mixture  of 
melted  tar  and  asphalt,  having  just  enough  asphalt  to  make  it 
hard  when  cold.  The  asphalt  should  be  spread  1  mi.  thick  and 
rubbed  smooth  with  siaid,  as  described  under  "Ground  Floors." 
A  car  shed  at  Jersey  City,  designed  by  Mr.  J.  B.  French, 
has  a  -l-in.  roof  slab  of  cinder  concrete,  reinforced  with  No.  23 
triangular  mesh. 

Original  and  .-iimple  formuke  for  proportioning  concrete  slabs 
are  given  herewith: 


\ioo 


1000 


A  = 


D 
12 


Where  D  is  the  depth  of  slab  in  inches  from  t!ie  upper  surfa'^e  to 

the  center  of  the  rods 
M  is  the  bending  moment  in  inch  pounds  per  foot  width  of  slab 
A,  tiie  area  of  steel  in  square  inches  i)er  foot  of  width  (Fig.  88). 

r 

D 

o  o  □  □  a  a 

Fia.  8.S. 


The  weight  of  various  concrete  floor  systems  varies  from  60 
to  120  lb.  per  scjuare  foot,  including  the  steel,  which  for  the  floor 
only,  is  from  2^  to  (5  lb.  per  S(juare  foot.  Dry  cinder  concrete 
weighs  from  oO  to  75  lb.  per  cubic  foot.  The  weight  of  floors 
dcjrnds,  therefore,  nn  the  system  used,  the  kind  of  material  and 
their  carrying  capacity. 


CONCRETE  UPPER  FLOORS 


183 


The   cost   of   reinforced    concrete   floors   and  framing,  under 
average  conditions,  is  about  us  fellows: 

Floor  slabs  and  beams  without  coluians  35  to  15  cents  por  square  foot  of 
floor. 

Complete  reinforced  concrete  frames  without  walls  50  to  65  cents  per  B<iuaro 

foot  of  floor. 

Labor  of  mi.xing  and  placing  concrete  $1 .00  f .    ?!  .  50  per  cubic  yard. 

Total  cost  of  concrete  in  place  $6.00  |x>r  cul)ic  yai.l. 

Total  cost  of  concrete  in  place  including  stwl  $12.00  i)er  cubic  yard. 

Forms  and  scaffolding  S5.00  pc-  cubic  yard. 

Total  cost  of  concrete,  steel  and  forms,  $17.00  jjcr  cubic  yard. 

Cinder  filling  3  in.  thick  over  slabs,  4  cents  |)er  s(iuare  foot. 

Cinder  filling  IJ  to  2  in.  tliick,  3  cents  per  square' foot. 

Forms,  5  cents  por  s()uare  foot. 

Or  including  beam-    10  to  12  cents  per  stjuaro  foot. 

Plain  rods  cost  $30  per  ton  while  patent  or  deformed  ones 
usually  sell  for  $40  to  $45  per  ton. 

The  comparative  cost  of  wood  and  reinforced  concrete  floors, 
with  columns  10  to  18  ft.  apart,  as  determined  b>  the  writer, 
showed  that  doulile  wood  floors  on  fireproofed  steel  beums,  cost 
about  18  cents  per  square  foot  including  the  beams.  Reinforced 
concre*3  beam  and  slab  floor.;  with  granolithic  finish  cost  from 
2o  to  30  cents  per  s(iuare  foot,  while  concrete  slabs  with  wood 
wearing  surface  will  cost  12  to  15  cents  per  s(iuare  foot  additional. 
The  concrete  in  the  floors  of  a  large  Luikling  at  Kansas  City  was, 
in  1008,  laid  at  the  rate  of  50  cu.  ft.  piu  man  per  day.  Under 
less  efficient  management,  it  had  formerly  been  placed  at  only 
ha'f  that  rate. 

Flat  Slab  Floors.— Concrete  floors  with  flat  ceilings  have  some 
advantages  over  those  which  have  exposed  ribs  or  beams  under- 
neath them,  because  in  case  of  fire,  -"ts  of  water  from  fire  hose 
or  sprinkler  systems  are  less  obstructed  on  flat  ceilings  than  when 
beams  are  used,  and  light  is  also  better  diffused.  Shafting  and 
sprinkler  heads  are  more  easily  attached  to  flat  surfaces  than  t- 
those  broken  up  with  beams,  the  saving  in  these  items  amounting 
i'£  some  cases  to  25  por  cent,  of  the  cost  of  installation.  Forms  or 
false  work  for  flat  ceilings  cost  5  to  8  cents  less  per  squpre  foot, 
when  beams  are  omitted.  A  flat  surface  can,  of  course,  be 
affected  by  suspending  a  ceiling  of  expanded  metal  and  plaster 
below  the  floor  beams,  l)ut  this  not  only  incurs  extra  expense  for 
the  ceiling  itself,  but  it  is  no  saving  either  in  the  height  of  the 
building  or  in  the  cost  of  forms.     Another  common  method  is  that 


184     ENGINEERING  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 

ill  wliich  liolh.w  tcriii  cottii  t'lcs  arc  placed  between  floor  joists 
(FiK.  H'J)  witli  coiuparatively  close  spaeiiiR.  While  this  method 
reduces  the  cost  of  centeriiif;;,  it  saves  nothing  in  the  floor  thick- 
ness and  includes  the  additional  cost  of  tiles.  Besides,  tho  tiles 
are  liable  to  crack  and  fall  from  the  jars  and  vibration  of  nuichin- 
ery,  exposing  the  building  contents  ami  the  workmen  to  danger. 
Floors  with  solid  slabs  without  beams  have  a  less  total  thick- 
ness than  the  combined  depth  of  slab  and  beams,  and  the 
available  head  n)oni  ifi  a  story  is  correspondingly  greater;  or  if  a 
fixetl  clear-story  height  is  needed,  the  total  height  of  a  building 
with  flat  slabs  can  b(  .es«  than  with  .slabs  and  beams.  In  a  ten- 
story  buihling  with  beams  10  in.  deep,  the  total  saving  in  the 
building  height  i^y  using  slab  floors  would  be  from  10  to  12  ft. 


.'  \*  '*  • 

.:-.':' ?r;.>v 

»..'■!  : 

■•■;--"^'i\/:r:^^' 

••■•; 

•v>->^!^ 

Zl 

'■  ' '» 

□  □ 

nrn 

'  ■  -  ■ 

LJLJ 

Fig.  89. 

The  chief  objection  to  solid  slabs  supported  directly  on 
columns  without  beams  is  their  uncertain  st'oss  conditions. 
For  fifty  years  or  more  structural  engineers  ha  e  wrestled  with 
the  prol)lcms  of  uncertain  stress.  The  merits  of  continuous 
girders,  imdtiple  truss  systems  and  other  uncertain  types,  have 
long  been  appreciated,  and  yet  the  uncnlainty  of  their  stre.s.sea 
has  gradually  but  surely  caused  nearly  all  such  systems  .to 
be  discarded.  One  of  these  flat  slab  systems  with  the  floor  sup- 
ported by  bars  radiating  from  the  column  tops  at  the  four  corners 
is  suitable  for  column  spacing  not  exceeding  20  ft.  Floor  panels 
If)  ft.  scpiare  with  a  7J-in.  rough  slab  not  including  the  1^*- 
in.  strip  filling  wi;!  su.stain  a  safe  test  of  800  lb.  per  square  foot. 
Larger  panels,  17  ft.  square,  with  a  rough  slab  thickness  of  oj 
in.  and  a  concrete  unit  stress  of  800  lb.  per  square  inch,  is 
strong  enough  for  a  live  load  of  250  lb.  per  square  foot,  with 
IJ  per  cent,  of  steel  reinforcement  at  the  top  and  bottom  of 
the  slab.  If  IJ  per  cent,  of  steel  is  used  at  the  top  only,  the 
re.piired  thickness  of  rough  slab  would  then  be  12  in.  This 
type  requires  about  40  per  cent,  more  steel  than  floors  with 
beams  and  thinner  sl.-ibs,  but  the  difTerence  i,s  partly  offset  by 
the  lower  cost  of  centering. 


'BB,*i '=•>»»«  ar/» 


CONCRETE  UPPER  FLOORS  185 

TABLE  XVII.-THICK\RS3  OF  FI.AT  UKIVFORCKD  CONCRKTK  FLOOR  SLABS 
_.S(£PP(,Rr..DA1^THK  FoUi;  U)KNKR.S  O.VI.Y 


Total  load  [xr 
Span,  feet  !       B(|uare  foot, 
pounds 


12 


Slal)  tliicki.oss, 
inches 


14 


16 


18 


20 


25 


^ 

7» 

5 

7 
8 

5J 

9 

6 

8 
10 


10 

u 


In  order  to  determine  the  comparative  cost  of  reinforced 
concrete  bulldinRs  with  flat  slab  floors,  and  witli  floors  of  com- 
bined beams  and  shibs,  estimates  were  made  on  a  ten-story 
bufldmg  109  ft.  wide  and  580  ft.  long,  which  showed  that  the 
design  with  flat  floor  .slabs,  including  a  patent  royalty  of  IJ 
per  cent.,  had  a  cost  only  2  per  cent,  less  than  the  design  with 
slabs  and  beams. 

The  itemized  cost  of  concrete  per  cubic  yard,  of  1-2-4  mixture 
was  as  follows:  ' 

Concrete,  lij  barrels  at  $1 .  10 .$1 .80 

Sand,  i  yard .q 

Stone,  1  yard j  q^j 

l^'^^'o'" '.'.'.'.     inn 

Sundries jq 

Total $4^30 


7^»as 


wm 


•a&j;**^ 


ISO    E.\ai\E!:R!S(;  of  shops  a\d  factories 


CoiuToto  ill  coluiims  luid  an  additional  cost  for  labor  of  70  cents 
per  ciil)ic  yard. 

It  is  well  known  tliat  Hat  siahs  supported  only  hy  columns  at 
the  four  corners  are  not  subject  to  exact  analysis  and  are  pro- 


f 


T' 


UJ 


StuKUktr  t } 

Cblcjo  I         I 


T-T- 


I     H^r    I   K      i      I  'Uucimto 

i.i.Iuiu.,       |J,ig    -t     ]  I    n^,     I 


I        Tyi.icul 
Si'ction 

I      Uirlri  Ikftm  autl 


P 


P 


I        I  II  II  I  Cd  IxJk       I  I         I  si.i  iwijn         j        , 

"■{','■'■  ■'■',.".■1    .1.'   ■■  '■■'J  v''iy  .lw",",^';A^'J)i^\f,»|^v,'l^i-l■r!v'^'  '..■''".'■  ^'r^  Jij>..i.>.'v  "fv""""^''. '"  '"■» 


Fig 


.    V 

Typical  Section; 
raneled-Floor  Construction  Ginlcr,  Beam  and  Slab  Design 

90. — Paneled  cciiinR,  eoniparfd  with  licam  ami  slab  desif;ii  for  Stude- 
liakcr  Co.  Iniikliiig,  ('liitaf;i). 


portioned  cliiefly  from  cxporinientH,  thou<rii  the  sla])s  arc  some- 
times assumed  to  act  as  cantilevers  from  the  flarinj;  column 
heads.  This  condition  in  itself  should  sivc  the  preference  to 
other  and  better  forms  which  can  be  proportioned  with  certainty. 
Fortunately  such  forms  are  available,  for  slabs  with  reinforce- 
ment in  two  directions  may  be  supported  on  other  wide  and 


■.^tt  ^^-'-rai^  "■"     tE- 


iitiwiTs^ms  m^mM^arm-iimBrM-  -.Mat.-^yjiiw  Msn^m. 


CONCRETE  UPPER  FLOORS  187 

shallow  slai)s  or  beiuns  continuous  over  the  columns,  forming 
lariic  panels  in  the  ceiling,  corresponding  with  the  position  of  the 
columns.  The  esthetic  effect  of  tliese  panels  is  much  superior 
to  a  wholly  flat  surface,  and  the  type  is  by  far  the  best  yet 
available  (Fig.  90).  In  the  Sharpless  Building  in  Chicago 
desi-ncd  by  Mr.  T.  L.  Condron,  with  columns  about  18  ft.  apart, 
the  main  beams  are  G  ft.  wide  and  only  1  ft.  deep,  with  an  8-in. 
intermediate  slab,  the  weight  of  steel  in  the  floor  being  oj  lb. 
per  square  foot.  Columns  have  a  uniform  diameter  of  2  ft. 
from  the  basement  to  the  tenth  floor,  the  column  caps  under 
each  floor  having  a  diameter  of  4  ft.  A  similar  arrangement  is 
used  in  the  Studebaker  Building  in  Chicago  in  which  the  columns 
are  24  ft.  apart. 


k.    -if=''&:>-       il 


\^VliSri-i 


t .-I*',*  -  "  ...•■.?"ii,K«* 


CMArTKIl  XVI 
WALLS,  PARTITIONS  AND  OPENINGS 

Brick  Walls.  Uiick  cotitimics  to  he  a  fiivoiitc  type  fur  tlio 
')iitsi(l(!  \>:ills  (if  sliops  utul  factory  hiiildiiif^s,  Ipccaiise  of  its  iiciit 
appoaraiicc.  It  may  1)(>  usccl  for  tlio  wlioli'  fxtcrior  wall,  or  as  a 
\('nc('r  over  the  coiicrcto  stnictiiral  parts.  Solid  hrick  walls  are 
laid  with  Knulisli  or  Flemish  lioml,  and  tho  liricks  should  lie  wet 
iicforo   layiiij;    to    |)rcv('iit   the   extraction   of  water  from    tiio 


I'm.  Ul-  Iliilliiw  (•(incictc  tile  walls.     Hunter  llliiiniiiatcil  Car  Sinn  f"o., 
I'lu.shing,  Long  Island. 

mortar.  A])oiit  nnc-fiftli  of  lirick  walls  is  composed  of  mortar, 
wiiich  should  Ijo  nuule  ]>y  mixing  one  barrel  of  lime,  four  of  sand, 
and  one-half  barrel  of  cement,  with  one  and  a  half  barrels  of 
walei-.  Wiu'U  laid  up  in  courses,  brickwork  will  set  lie  aiiout 
1  in.  for  every  ')0  ft.  in  height.     One  nmn  can  lay  1000  to  1200 

188 


WALLS,  I'AUTITIO.XS  AM)  ()l'L.\l.\t„> 


189 


briiks  per  day  in  jjlaiii  walls,  ami  UMM)  to  .■)()()()  per  day  in  inassivo 
lilofks  such  as  cn^iiif  licds  or  foiiiidalions.  Douis  and  window 
frames  should  be  niaile  of  the  proper  size  to  suit  the  brick  c  ourses 
witlM)ut  cuttinfr.  Krirk  walls,  cither  8  or  12  in.  thii  k,  cost  about 
the  same — 45  cents  per  superficial  foot— for  the  material  >:aved 
in  the  8-in.  wall  is  ofTset  by  the  greater  lal)or  cost  of  la.\  ,.;r  it. 

Vitrified  Tile  Walls.— Walls  of  vitrified  tile  are  li;;ht  and  do 
not  absorl)  water.  Hlocks  are  usually  8  by  12  by  18  in.,  and 
when  laid  in  the  wuU  cost  2">  cents  per  superficial  foot,  or  '.iS 
cents  when  ])lastered  on  both  sides  (l''i<:.  Ml). 

Concrete  Block  Walls. — Concrete  blocks  have  a  lijrht  woijiht 
and  low  cost,  but  have  the  objection  of  bcinjj  rather  jjorous. 
When  tiic  regulations  of  labor  (inions  are  such  as  to  retjuire  the 


Ficj.  02. — Hollow  concrito  hlock  wall. 

employment  of  union  masons  or  bricklayers  for  placing  them, 
the  cost  of  this  kind  of  wall  will  be  increased.  A  recent  type 
is  sliown  in  I'ig.  92. 

Walls  may  also  be  made  of  8-in.  hollow  concrete  tile  blocks 
8  by  8  by  16  in.,  with  cement  and  aj;prej;atc  mixed  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1  to  3.  Stones  in  afrjirejiate  should  not  exceed  o  8-in. 
diameter.  The  cost  of  laying  these  tiles  with  common  labor  is 
only  about  one-third  that  of  layinp  brick  and  the  final  cost  of 


gyq§ig^g«-:.j 


^  15J«.  -        — 


'  llll«>-   llllllr*  •■■■M"   III! 
•  IIIK;;  illl 
mil:—  lllll 


imm 


Fig.  <).'{. —  Huilding  witli  concrete  l)lnck  walls. 

the  finished  walls  lias  been  found  to  be  only  40  to  7')  per  cent, 
as  much  as  ordinary  brick  and  2.")  to  50  per  cent,  as  much  as  cut 
stone  or  face  brick  (Fiji.  03). 

Cement  Brick  Walls. — Cement  brick  was  successfully  used  by 
the  Plymouth  Cordape  Company  in  a  two-story  shop,  114  ft. 
wide  and  430  ft.  long.     It  contains  2,400,000  bricks  made  with 


i!K)     /•;.\7,7AAA7// V;  OF  SIKH'S  AM)  FACTO  HIES 

IuiikI  nuichiiios,  flio  proportioii  nf  coiiu'iit  ami  aand  l)rinK  1  to 
li.  Six  kiiiiis  of  lirii'ks  wen*  iiiailc,  and  \\\v  rate  at  which  tlicy 
were  produced  is  as  follows: 

f'nmition  pomi'tit  hrirks 1 1,000  por  <liiy 

Fiico  liricks lt,(MK)  [ht  <luy 

Radius  l.ri<-k« .  .    S,0(M)  |kt  <liiy 

('orticr  liricks s,()(Mt  (kt  day 

IIca.l.Ts (•,(MM)  [HT  iliiy 

Wliilc  brifk.t <»,(«)(»  iH!r  duy 

Mortar  for  li'viii;;  ceiiieiit  liricks  contains  cement  and  sand  in  the 
proportion  of  1  to  '.\,  with  a  half  sack  of  lime  added  for  each 
liarrel  of  cement.  The  waste  was  oidy  one-half  of  1  j)er  cent, 
and  the  linished  cost  was  found  to  he  12  per  cent,  less  than  clay 
bricks. 

Concrete  Walls. — Concrete  walls  may  he  eitlier  self  supporting 
and  solid  to  directly  sustain  imposefl  loads,  or  they  may  be  used 
as  curtains  l)etween  the  structural  members  of  steel  or  concrete. 
The  latter  method  is  now  fienerally  itsed  aiul  is  the  cheaper  and 
more  convenient,  as  the  structure  can  be  erected  first  and  the 
walls  filled  in  afterward.  Exterior  concrete  curtain  walls 
should  never  be  thinner  than  4  in.,  and  they  may  be  veneered 
with  brick,  as  on  tlie  Hullock  Electric  Company's  shops  at 
Cincinnati.  For  the  purposes  of  anc-horiiij;  the  brick,  strips  of 
ni'  lal  should  be  tacked  lifihtly  to  the  inside  of  the  wood  forma  and 
built  4  in.  into  the  concrete,  ^\'hen  the  forms  are  removed,  these 
anchors  can  b(>  straii:hteiied  out  and  built  into  the  brick  joints, 
thus  (irmly  uniting;  the  two  materials.  \\'hen  the  walls  are  not 
veneered,  the  concrete  surface  may  be  tr(>ated  by  any  of  the 
methods  jriven  in  the  chapter  on  "Concr(!te  Surface  Finish." 
The  orifiinal  Ijuildini;  for  the  I'nitcd  Shoe  .Machinery  shop  at 
Hevcrly,  .Mass.  (I'ii;.  i>4)  was  m  ule  with  solid  walls,  but  when 
making  additions  in  1907,  the  walls  were  cored.  Concrete  curtain 
walls  8  in.  thick,  when  cast  in  place  with  double  wooden  forms 
a^ter  the  skeleton  is  finished,  cost  aljout  40  cents  per  square 
foot,  but  when  poured  at  the  same  time  as  the  columns,  the  cost 
is  increased  to  aijoiit  48  cents  per  scpiare  foot.  Curtain  walls  or 
filliiifr  slabs  4  in.  tJiick,  when  poured  as  described  abo\e,  cost 
a.j  cents  j)cr  scpnire  foot.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  walls  of 
8-in.  concrete  and  12-in.  brick  co.st  about  the  same  (Fig.  95). 

Monolithic  concrete  walls  have,  however,  been  recently  made 


WALLS,  I'AHTiriOSS  AM)  O/'A'.V/.Vf.'.S'  I'Jl 


'  A*  -»  i»»  ^ae"  C^www* 


.  ,1,-.   ,..->*.'■" 


•H   C«rit«rs   of  Mam   Builfl'^gs 


m 


iXrS    »-k'>*rfital  Barm 


Fio.  94.— United  Shoe  Mackinerj-  Co.  Shop  ,  Beverly,  Mass. 


m 


f^' 


■,  5'.**^ 


1<,)2     K\(!ISh:i':iiI\(!  OF  Sn()I<  A\D  FACTORIES 

with  loi.u.val.lo  inotal  forms  at   a  fitcat  savin- in  expense,  the 
actual  cost  with  unskilled  labor  being  as  follows: 

Twelve-inch  monolithic  concrete  walls,'  made  as  above,  cost 


.J"ra»n 


Stvne 


n    ^   r       4.   n-  ,»«.:»»  '  Vertical  Section. 

Port    Front    Elevation. 

!,-,(,_  95. — Details  for  concrete  Imilding. 

l^j.^prial   H    ■'•  <■'""' ■'^  l"^'""  SQ""''""  f""* 

MUiiiK  :uul  placing :'  <'  "■'"''  I«''"  '^'1'"""^^  f""'* 

Moval.lo  iiu'tal  forms 1  ■  ">  cents  per  s-iuaro  f<.ot 

'j'„,.jj 1(1. U  cents  i)or  siiuiirt^  foot 

Six-incii  monolithic  concrete  walls  cost 

i^j.ij^.,.j.i|  .")  7.')  cents  ytfT  sciuaro  fniit 

Mixins  aM.l  I'.laeinf; 1   ■"'    "■'"'^  I'-'r  ■''!'■''"'  f-.t 

Moval.le  medial  r..rn.s 1    ">    cents  per  square  foot 

■I-,,,.,]  S.T.")  cents  per  !si|Uare  foot 

]f  a  surface  coat  is  desired  it  can  be  adde.l  at  an  additional  cost 
of  2\  cents  i)er  s(iuarc  foot.     The  concrete  itself  in  the  G-m. 
»  Cvment  Age,  February,  1912. 


WALLS,  PARTITIONS  AND  OPENINGS  193 

walls  cost  S.j.40  per  cubic  yard  or  20  cents  per  cubic  foot.  The 
cost  of  the  removable  steel  forms  has  been  found  to  be  about 
one-half  cent  per  .s(iuare  foot  for  each  face,  while  wood  forms 
would  cost  at  least  5  cents  for  each  face.  Unskilled  labor  can  be 
u;-ed  on  monolithic  work,  whereas  block  walls  must  usually  be 
laid  by  masons  at  a  higher  rate  of  wages.  These  costs  are  re- 
markal)ly  low  for  a  wall  that  is  substantial  and  that  can  be  made 
attractive  at  an  aditional  expense  of  2  or  3  cents  per  square  foot, 
as  elsewhere  described.  Walls  3  to  4  in.  thick,  of  previously 
moulded  concrete  slabs,  can  be  made  and  erected  at  a  cost  of 
8  to  10  cents  pers(|uare  foot,  but  they  lack  the  rigidity  of  mono- 
lithic work.     (See  "Separately  Moulded  Members".) 

Wooden  Walls.— Tliese  are  but  little  used  in  modern  sliops  and 
should  be  covered  with  slate,  shingle,  or  metal  siding  either 
stamped  or  rolled.  Plank  with  splines  or  tongue  and  groove 
may  stand  vertically  and  be  fastened  to  horizontal  girths,  and 
square  edged  plank  may  have  the  vertical  joints  covered  with 
i-in.  battens.  If  the  planks  are  laid  diagonally,  they  form 
substantial  bracing  for  the  building,  though  the  diagonal  cutting 
causes  some  waste.  Planks  should  be  horizontal  when  the 
walls  are  covered  with  slate  or  metal.  A  weather  boarded  wall 
over  plank  not  including  the  framing,  will  cost  10  to  12  cents  per 
square  foot. 

The  comjiarative  cost  of  frame,  veneer  and  solid  brick  walls  is 
as  given  in  the  following  table: 

TABLE  XVIII 

Thame 

'''""♦''•■'"K $0.24  per  square  yard 

I.tmihcr,  IS  ft.  at  2  1,2  eonth 4.')  per  s<iuare  vanl 

Siding',  12  ft.  ivt  :i  1,2  cents 42  per  s.piare  yard 

PaiiitiiiR  per  yard,  two  coats 17  per  S(iuare  yard 

I'ai>cr  per  yard  put  on 03  ,ior  yard  square 

Back  plaster 20  jwr  sipiare  yard 

'"*•'' 81 .  51  ])er  square  yard 

RiiicK  Venkku 

P'"«*'''"'"K                                                    so  24  iwr  square  yard 
Lumber,   IS  ft.  at  2J  cents 4,^,  ,„.r  square  yard 

'  "!'*•'" o:i  per  K(iuaro  yard 

Face  l)rick,  <>:{  at  A  cents 1 .  89  {)er  square  yard 

'*""'"' *2 .  01  per  square  yard 

13 


' 


194     ENGIMJERING  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 

Solid  Hhick 

Vmi)  brick,  «:{  iit  3  ctMits SI  S9  por  s(iuaro  yard 

Common  l>ric-k,  120  at  1  cent 1 .2()  iH>r  si|uare  yard 

FurrinR "6  por  K<iuaro  yard 

I'lasteriiiR 24  per  square  yard 

Total 83 .  45  per  square  yard. 

Brick  veneer  will  therefore  cost  for  the  whole  building  25  per  cent, 
more  than  frame,  and  solid  brick  about  40  per  cent,  more  than  the 
frame  building. 


Fig.  90. — Tile  wall  for  four-story  building.     Thickness  4  to  12  in. 


Partitions. — Departments  which  generate  noise,  gas,  smoke, 
fumes,  or  dust  must  be  partitioned  off  from  other  parts  of  the 
shop,  and  these  departments  will  include  rooms  for  polishing, 
grinding,  rattling,  Japanning  and  painting.  These  partitions 
are  cheapest  and  most  conveniently  made  of  thin  terra  cotta 
blocks  or  hollow  tile  2  to  4  in.  thick  (Figs.  96-97)  for  they  can 
ca:si!y  be  removed  -.vlien  other  arrangement  is  needed.  When 
removal  and  rearrangement  is  improbable,  partitions  may  be 


WALLS,  PARTITIONS  AND  OPENINGS  195 


^^^ 


!■ ^^ 

f 

y 

1 

n 

t^ 

' — Tl 

l^ 


Phoenix"  Wall,  with  piers,  smooth  or  ribhrj  (or  plastering 

Fig.  97. — Tile  wall  with  pier.     Blocks  tither  smooth  or  ribbed  for  plastering. 


Pl/ISTrn, 


CLHHP' 


'f^%\'<^.^^'£^.,1^i^^^iK-]^A^JSS»S&^y^^^ 


flIR 


Wii^\'^V^.>%^ffb'^^yj'^f,^prjtf.'^vt^Ag;».^^ 


CLAMP' 


fLHSTCii 


-r 


^5^^S2^S3SS 


Fig.  98. — Concrete  channel  block  partitions  and  wall  furring. 


i!)ii    K\(;i.\j:i:h'i\<!  oi-'  snors  a\d  factories 

,.f  iviiifoncd  coiHTcto  (Tiu.  '.»S)  or  cxpiindcd  metal  on  li^ht  fram- 
ing!;. Mai'kito  l>l<>.'ks  2  in.  tliick  liave  ficiuently  boon  used  and 
arc  easily  elected,  as  tiiey  are  VI  in.  wide  and  4  feet  lonji.  As  the 
blocks  are  soft,  they  should  be  coated  with  adamant  plaster. 
Some  makers  of  expanded  metal  also  manufacture  metal  studs 
with  oiitstandin.ir  iiroiiirs  ready  for  clincliin,u:  when  the  expanded 
metal  is  in  jjositiou.  These  studs  greatly  simplify  the  work  of 
partiticm  buildin-r.  Concrete  and  expanded  metal  walls  2  m. 
thick  cost  20  cents  per  s(iuare  foot. 

Windows.— One  of  the  chief  differences  between  old  manu- 
facturing buildings  and  new  ones  is  in  tlu>  amount  of  light  ad- 
mitted, modern  ones  fretpiently  having  three  to  four  times  a.s 


Y^^■    00.— A  motlcrii  plant  for  Dod^o  Hrothcrs  Co.,  Detroit. 

much  as  tlieir  predecessors.  In  fact,  the  exterior  walls  are  now 
compo.^ed  chiefly  of  glass,  many  having  window  areas  of  70  to  SO 
per  cent,  of  their  exterior  surface  (Fig.  OH). 

When  walls  have  brick  on  the  outside,  the  si/e  of  window 
frames  should  !>e  nnide  to  suit  an  even  number  of  brick  courses  to 
avoid  cutting  tlie  brick.  Cypress  was  formerly  used  for  largo 
sash  and  frames,  but  it  lias  been  found  to  warp  easily,  and  pine 
is,  therefore.  i)referred.  Nearly  all  of  the  latest  shops,  however, 
have  steel  frames  and  sasii.  i)rovided  with  opening  mechanism, 
to  operate  a  number  of  sasli  a'  once  (Fig.  100).  Trunnions  should 
turn  in  brass  sockets  lu  avoid  any  possibility  of  binding  from  rust. 


WALLS,  PARTITIONS  A\D  OPEMSdS 


107 


A  pood  iirranfjonioiit  for  side  \v;dl  windows  is  to  have  three  tiers 
of  sash,  tlie  upper  one  beinji  pivoted  for  ventilation  and  the  two 
lower  ones  luin<r.  In  cold  climates  windows  should  be  double 
Slazed  to  save  expense  in  heating. 

a'z-Bar  furnished  by  Steel  Contractor  ^F'o'hins  by  Roofer 


Height  of  sash  (A)  less 

rylap  ei|ii.ils  the  height 

of  opening  (B) 

Tal)Ie  of  Openings  for 
StuiidirJ  Sash 

^        i 

2'  10'/." 

3'10'.."i 
4' 10'.."    ~ 
5' 10'.."      - 
/I -Sash  ^ 

/; — opening     / 

3  Continuous  Antjle  by 
Stud  Contractor 


Vertical 

Section  one 

sash  high 


by  Stesl  Contractor 
Flashins  by  Koofer 


Vertical 

Section 

tuo  sash 

high 


Tig.  100.— Detail  of  Monitor  windows. 

Doors. — All  doors  in  nudti-story  buildings  should  be  fire- 
proof, and  at  the  stairs  tliey  sliutild  iiave  fusible  link  atlacli- 
nieiits,    tin-clad   doo.'s   being   preferable   to  sheet    i>>etal   ones. 


lOS     KSGIXEEli.     r,  OF  SHOPS  A\D  FACTORIES 

Stonigo  huililinfis  are  often  i)r()vido(l  with  double  sets  of  doors, 
solid  ones  to  close  at  nifiiit,  and  iinier  ones  for  use  during  the  day 
with  open  slats  which  will  allow  air  to  circulate. 

Car  shed  doors  10  ft.  hy  1('>  ft.  are  economical  and  convenient 
when  made  of  wood  and  hunji  on  cast-iron  eyelets  l>uilt  into  the 
wall.  They  may  have  plass  in  the  upper  panels,  and  the  cost 
should  not  exceed  about  SIOO.  Rollinfr  steel  shutters  for  the 
same  place  would  proliably  cost  SKiO  to  S170. 

In  sjiecial  places  where  loading  cranes  must  extenvi  out 
through  the  side  walls  of  a  l)uilding  to  cover  an  adjoining  line  of 
railway,  a  rolling  steel  shutter  may  be  mounted  on  wheels  to  move 
out  from  tlic  building  in  advance  to  the  crane  and  return  again 
to  its  original  position  on  the  side  of  the  building,  when  the  crane  is 
indoors.  For  more  comjjlete  details  of  windows  and  doors  for 
shops,  see  Tyrrell's  "Mill  Buildings"  pages  331-373. 


CH.\PTFR  XVII 

ROOFS    AND    ROOFING 

The  weight  and  permissible  roof  inclination  for  different  kinds 
of  roofing  are  given  in  the  following  taljle.  From  thi.s  it  appears 
that  either  the  inclination  or  its  covering  can  be  selected  arbi- 
trarily, but  when  u  choice  of  one  of  these  has  been  made,  the  other 

T.VBI.K  XIX— ROOF  COVKHING— WKIC.UT  AND  LIMITS  OF  SI.OPK 


Material 


From 


I 

1 

Corrugated  iron  on  purlins 5 

Zinc  on  boards 0 

Zinc  on  purlins !  0 

Lead*  on  boarding '  Flats  and 

Lead  and  purlins '  Flats  and 

Slates  on  boarding 20 

Slates  and  purlins 20 

Tiles  on  battens  and  rafters 30 

Tiles  and  purlins 3() 


degrees) 

orizontal 

Weight  in 

pounds  per 

square  foot 

To 

30 

5 

30 

5 

30 

7i 

gutter  only 

10 

gutter  only 

12i 

45 

12i 

45 

15 

70 

17i 

70 

20 

Fig.  101. — Tile  roof  details. 

must  conform  to  it.  The  slope  must  be  great  enough  to  shed 
water  over  the  joints  or  seams  of  the  diffierent  coverings,  and  flat 
enough  in  some  cases  to  permit  the  covering  to  be  placed. 

199 


200     ES(!I.\Ki:i{I\a  OF  SIIOI'S  AM)  I'ACTOUIK^ 

lloofiiifi  is  muilc  ill  jirciit  variety,  iiichnliiij,'  til(>,  sluto,  com- 
position, phcet  iiK'tal,  and  wooil  sliiiifilcs,  and  tlicso  are  sup- 
ported directly  on  purlins  or  on  plank  oi'  a  lillini;  of  concrete 
between  thcin,  siicli  lillinj;  niakiiiK  excellent  roof  bracing. 
Boards  should  be  strong  enough  to  sup|)ort  a  man's  weight,  and 
the  maximum  span  lengths  for  difterent  thicknesses  are  as  given 
in  the  following  table: 


2  ft. 

S    ill. 

:i  ft. 

<)  ill. 

•1  ft. 

1  ill. 

■1  ft. 

S  i:i. 

.j  ft . 

:t  ill. 

.->ft. 

lit  ill. 

(ift. 

.")  ill. 

7  ft. 

0  ill. 

TABLE  XX. -UOOF  DO.\ni)IXG— TIIICKNIXS  .WD  SI'.W 

I 

Thickness  in  inches  Ma.xiinuni  .siian 


9 
f 

i 
1 

n 
n 
n 
n 


BuiUling.s  in  which  acid  fumes  are  generated,  as  in  brass 
foundries,  mu.st  be  covered  with  an  indestructible  material  such 
as  slate.  Uralite  has  been  used  in  England,  its  cost  being  about 
the  same  as  \o.  20  corrugated  iron. 

Flat  roofs  should  be  framed  like  floors,  excepting  that  they 
should  have  a  slope  of  at  least  1/-  in.  jjcrfoot,  and  they  are  most 
conveniently  covered  with  tin,  tar  and  gravel,  or  some  kind  of 
composition. 

Tin  roofing  (M.  F.  Brand)  is  sold  in  boxes  containing  110 
sheets  and  costs  about  S7.2o  per  box.  The  a"tual  cost  of  laying 
it  will  be  about  G  cents  per  square  foot  additii  nal.  Previous  to 
laying  the  metal,  the  roofing  bf)ards  should  b(>  overlaid  with  three 
layers  of  tar  jiaper  fastened  down  with  nails   and  tin  washers. 

The  quantities  of  material  recjuired  to  lay  one  square  of  tar 
and  gravel  roofing,  are: 

SheatliinK  pajwr 100  .s<i.  ft. 

Tarred  felt SO  to  !tO  lli. 

Coal  tar  pitcli 120  to  1(K(  II). 

Gravol 400  lb.,  or  .slag  300  lb. 


ROOFS  AND  ROOFING 


201 


Folt  woijjhs  1')  lb.  per  lUU  h<(.  ft.  witli  an  addition  of  10  per  cent, 
for  ia|)s.  Wlien  Imrlai)  and  felt  arc  used  tlie  cost  will  be  about 
$4.oO  per  .sciuare  (100  sq,  ft.),  or  .slabs  can  be  covered  with  felt 
and  asphalt. 

Concrete  Roofs. — Concrete,  while  somewhat  lieavier  than  wood, 
is  often  favored  because  it  is  fireproof,  and  when  covered  with 
roofing  material  to  shed  water,  cinder  concrete  can  be  used,  as 
on  tlie  buildings  at  the  Brooklyn  Navy  Yaid,  where  the  3J-in, 
.slabs  of  concrete  and  e.xpanded  metal  are  covered  with  slate.  If 
a  concrete  roof  with  a  considerable  pitch  or  slope  is  to  be  covered 
with  tile,  wood  nailing  strips  parallel  with  the  eave  should  be 
cast  into  the  slabs. 

Concrete  Shingles. — Shingle  machines  are  sold  for  $100  to 
$200,  that  are  quite  similar  to  those  for  making  concrete  block.s. 
One  make  of  machine  produces  a  cement  .shingle  8  in.  wide,  IG  in. 
long,  and  J  i.     thick  at  the  butt,  each  shingle  being  reinforced 


I'Ki.   102. — Water  prtxif  concrete  tile. 

with  metal  which  projects  in  loops  at  each  side  for  nailing.  They 
are  composed  of  cement  and  sand  in  the  proportion  of  1  to 
li  mixed  dry,  vi'h  water  added  afterward.  At  the  end 
of  twenty-four  liours  the\'  are  removed  from  the  moulds  and 
stacked  in  the  yard  for  thirty  days,  being  sprinkled  occasionally 
for  a  few  days  after  making  them.  Tlie  cost  of  labor  and 
materials  will  var}  in  different  sections,  and  hand  machines  will 
make  from  300  to  400  shingles  per  day. 

Concrete  Tile. — Waterproof  concrete  tiles  (Fig.  102)  supported 
directly  on  purlins,  have  come  rajjidly  into  use  and  have  many 
advantages.  They  were  tirst  made  in  the  United  States  in  1902. 
Their  extreme  size  is  20  by  52  in.  and  }  in.  thick,  and  they  lay 


'J02    i:.\(!Im:i:i{1.\(i  of  siiors  am)  factohieu 

2\  l>y  48  ill.  to  tlic  wfiitlicr,  \vcifiliin<;  in  position,  alxmt  13  11).  per 
S(lU!ire  foot.  I'lirliiis  must  he  4  ''*.  a|):irt  on  (•enters.  Tiles  are 
reinforeed  with  iiuiiilicr  IS  expanded  metal.  With  this  roofing 
jllass  skvlijilits  are  iinneeessaiy,  as  any  desired  proixirtiou  of  filusa 
tiles  eaii  be  siihstitiiteil  for  the  rcfiular  ones,  and  they  can  be 
arranged  as  desired,  either  in  clusters  or  in  small  scuttered  areas. 


niArTER  xviir 


NOTES  ON  SPECIAL  BUILDINGS 

The  Drafting  Office.  -Tlic  import anrc  of  the  draft ing  ofTico  cnn 

better  l>e  (■oniprelieiKied  wlieii  it  is  considered  tliat  not  less  tlian 
S.")(),<)<)(),0()0  ill  wages  is  paid  anmiaiiy  to  draftsmen  in  the  United 
States,  and  otiier  conntrios  can  iloubtiess  show  siiiiihir  propor- 
tions. As  the  drafting  room  is  the  phiee  where  inventions  are 
ma(h^  and  developed,  and  details  of  construction  determined, 
every  facility  should  be  providod  that  will  assist  in  these  direc- 
tions. ICngineers  and  designers  shouUl  not  be  tied  down  to 
routine  work  or  to  exact  hours,  for  such  restrictions  arc  a  hin- 
drance to  thought  and  studj-.  An  hour  or  two  over  a  drawing 
board  at  one  time  without  interruption  is  enougli,  and  the  day's 
work  generally  should  not  exceed  eight  hours.  It  sliould  be 
remembered  tliat  in  this  office,  wealth  can  either  \)0  made  or  lost 
for  the  factor}  .vncrs,  and  the  greatest  latitude  should  be  given 
to  men  who  are  capable  of  creating  profits  and  saving  in  expense. 
Those  who  liave  the  faculty  for  design  should  not  l)c  hampered, 
for  the  day  is  short  enough,  and  '.iun  fatigued  with  trivial 
duties  even  an  inventive  mind  must  take  time  to  rest. 

The  drafting  office  (Kig.  ItKi)  in  all  its  j)articulars  should, 
therefore,  bo  made  to  assist  its  occupants  in  doing  their  best. 
Ciood  light,  air,  and  a  comfortable  degre  if  warmth  are  essentials, 
but  nothing  is  more  important  than  oi  ler.  Attention  cannot  be 
concentrated  on  a  sul)jcct  to  the  best  advantage  in  a  room  where 
papers  and  litter  of  every  kiiul  are  piled  about,  and  since  papers 
must  accumulate  rapidly  in  a  drafting  office,  there  should  be 
facility  for  filing  them  where  thc\'  can  be  easily  reached.  Room 
interiors  and  furniture  should  preferablj'  be  finished  in  light 
tones,  for  dark  colors  absorb  light.  Upp'T  sash  may  Iiave  ribbed 
glass  which  diffuses  daylight  better  than  plain,  but  the  lower 
glass  should  be  clear,  that  men  may  rest  their  eyes  by  occasiona 
distant  views.  Each  window  should  have  two  shades,  one 
for  each  sash.  The  office  must  also  be  well  ventilated,  for 
clear  tliought  is  impossible  in  a  foul  atmosphere,  and  rooms 

203 


201    i:.\(;i.\i:i:i{is(i  of  snors  asd  factokifs 

h1i.hi1<1.  tlii'iffnic,  lie  lii;;li  and  in  warm  wcatlicr  slioiild  liavc  fans. 
'I'liry  .-liuiild  1)1'  lar;;i'  ciicdiuli  tlial  carli  mail  will  have  nut  li-ss  than 
1(H)  sc|.  ft.  of  lici.pr  .space,  ami  tlifii-  .•.jiuiilil  he  I'mmiLtli  toilets  lUid 
Wash  huuls  III  pinviilf  (iiic  for  cvciy  twelve  to  fifteen  o(  lUpaiits. 
Ollice  ei|uipment  slionld  he  selected  with  a  view  to  promoting 
order  and  (  nnveineiice  lioth  as  to  quantity  ami  kind  of  furnishing'. 
Iiiclineil  or  liori/ciiital  drawing:  hoards  are  hetter  than  vortical 
ones,  hecau^e  staiidin;;  all  day  with  extended  arms  hefore  a  ver- 
tical lioard  i>  loo  fati^iuinjr.     One  or  more  illuminated  druwinK 


Ik..   Iu:{.— .V  ilial'tiiig  otiicc. 

hoards  are  conveident  for  traciufr  hluejirints.  The  hoard  is,  in 
fact,  a  jjieco  of  plate  frlass  in  a  wooden  frame  with  facility  at  the 
edjics  f(U-  clampin'i  the  drawing:  down.  It  has  electric  lights  l)e- 
neath  the  f;lass  to  illuminate  the  hlueprint  from  helow.  A 
small  printing  press  is  a  saving;  of  time  in  i)Utliiiji  on  titles  or  other 
wording  that  is  repeated  on  several  sheets.  It  can  also  he  used 
for  i>rin(in<i  time  cards,  tillice  fiiini>,  hlank^  aiid  .-.uiiiiar  pajtors. 
I'rinters'  ink  which  dries  slowly  and  is  likely  to  smear  shoidd  he 


»S. 


& 


.\()Ti:s  n.\  si'i:riM,  miLDisas 


20.') 


sprinklocl  ovt-r  witli  |Mi\vc|crcil  dialk  or  .sDapstoiu'.  Driiflsinni 
hlit»ul<l  alsii  have  ll  <  use  of  a  wiiliiin  ii'acliiiit'  fn-  tahulatinj;  or 
C(ii>yiM;;,  and  carWori  negatives  may  be  iiiade  im  liiiii  papi-r  that 
can  ea.iily  h(>  l)liu'j)rintt"il. 

A  liektograph  rapalile  tif  niakin<j  froni  sixty  to  eighty  (hipli- 
cates  is  useful  for  copying  siniph'  sketihes.  The  hidck  is  ccni- 
pused  of  wliite  h-ad  and  jiiiie  poured  into  a  siiallow  pan  and  a'- 
Io\ve(l  to  liarden.  I)ra\vinij:s  for  use  on  the  liekto^raph  siioulil  In* 
made  on  cloth  willi  special  ink,  and  as  the  ink  does  not  dry,  tli(( 
rider  .siiould  he  raised  slij;htly  above  the  cloth  on  boiiler  strii)s  to 
avoid  smeariiij:  it.  Theso  inks  can  lie  l)ouj;ht  in  several  colors. 
This  method  of  copying;  is  veiy  useful  for  snudl  drawings,  and 
espoeially  for  blank  forms  such  as  bolt  and  ri\-et  lists,  for  when 
iilanks  are  niade,  three  or  four  co|iies  can  mc  tilled  out  at  one  time 
with  the  use  of  carbon  pajier  in  a  typewriter. 

Other  simple  sketches  may  be  diawn  directly  on  paper  and 
several  carbon  copies  made  by  lulint;  over  a  hard  surftu'e,  such  as 
polished  Wood  or  a  sheet  of  metal. 

A  larj;(!  cameia  is  extremely  useful  in  connection  with  th<' 
draftinji  room.  I'hotojrraphic  views  of  buihlin^rs  or  machiiu'iy 
can  l)e  reproduced  in  pen  and  ink  sketches  by  tracitijr  ovei'  the 
l)hotofiraph,  and  from  tlu'se  sketches,  zinc  etchin^rs  can  !ie  made 
at  a  cost  of  .">  cents  per  s(iuare  imdi.  The  cameru  is  also  useful  for 
v'prouucinir  <lrawin,u-  and  reducini;:  tlu^m  to  a  small  size  which 
can  be  conveniently  handled,  especially  fm"  outdoor  use  or  erec- 
tion purposes.  When  re(lucin,i;  lariic  drawings  by  photojiraphy,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  use  solid  lines,  and  larjre  open  |)rintin};  which 
can  be  read  easily  on  the  reduction.  I'hotojiraphs  and  blue-prints 
can  bo  mounted  on  cards  or  pasteboard  for  the  shop,  and  shellaced, 
ami  then  if  they  become*  soiled  they  can  easily  be  cleaiu>(l. 

The  cylindrical  arc  liuht  blueprinting;'  machine  is  the  l)est  and 
most  relialile  for  all  kinds  of  weather,  but  the  office  should  also 
have  one  or  more  suidi^ht  frames,  ^\'henever  alterations  are 
made  on  blueprints  that  have  alieady  jione  to  the  shoj),  the  date 
of  such  alterations  should  be  noted  thereon.  Blueprints  may  be 
photo;!;rai)!u>d  by  chan^in^  them  to  brown  in  the  following  waj'. 
The  prints  should  hrst  lie  immersed  in  a  dilute  solution  of  am- 
monia until  tiic  blue  disappears.  They  are  then  washed  in  water 
and  placed  in  a  weak  solution  of  tannic  acid  until  they  turn 
brown.  The  prints  should  again  be  washed  with  water  and 
dried,  when  they  can  easily  be  photographed. 


A  rcvoiil  hook  of  contnu'ts  shoultl  he  kept  hy  tlio  cliief  drafts- 
man or  oflice  iiiana.iicr,  ami  this  should  consist  of  ,lui)liciite  pa-cs 
altcnuitclv  white  :uul  yellow,  the  yellow  hein-  used  for  a  carhon 
c.py.  Then,  wJien  work  in  tlic  draft  in-;  oIImc  is  assi,i;ne<l,  the 
duplicate  copy  can  he  torn  out  and  handed  to  the  draftsman. 

Machine  Shops.— These  huildiufis  nnist  liave  space  for  planers, 
lathes,  and  other  tools,  as  well  as  storage  room  for  completed 


I'lc.   101.— I.T};.-  sliop.     Tnitcil  Shoe  .M:i(liincry  Co.,   Bovorly,  Mass. 


Mud  ])arliallv  completed  work,  atid  space  for  assemhling  niachin- 
eiv  and  for  toilets,  lavatory  and  shop  offu'e.  Some  form  of 
wooden  floor  as  descrihed  in  Chapter  Xllf,  is  the  hest,  as  these 
are  comfo'tahle  to  stand  on,  can  he  kept  clean,  and  when  sharp- 
cdjied  tools  drop,  they  arc  not  injmcd.  The  ahsence  of  dust  in 
machine  sliojis  is  important,  and  especially  tln^  kind  that  fro- 
<iuently  rises  from  a  concrete  floor,  for  it  settles  in  the  nia<'hinery 
hearings  and  is  likely  to  injure  theiti.  Other  reMuisites  common 
to  all  modern  shops,  such  as  light  and  ventilation,  arc  likewise 
apiiroi)riate  h<  re. 

Forge  Shops.—  Blacksmith  shops  will  contain  steam-hammers, 


NOTES  ON  .'SPECIAL  BUILDINGS 


207 


bulldozers,  forges  and  anvils,  furnaces,  iron  and  fuel,  and  space 
for  a  wash  room  and  for  an  office.  They  should  have  provision 
for  heating  in  cold  weather  without  d("i)ending  on  the  forge  fires. 
One  chin:M  [V'''.  104)  is  generally  enough  for  six  ordinary 
forges,  1 1  for  douri  <.•;  ift  only  one  chimney  is  needed  for  the 
whole  I  uilding.  I^iat^  ial  should  be  stored  in  a  separate  ware- 
house a!  !  urouidi*  in  o  the  shop  only  as  required.  The  clear 
height  uiideiuc .  J  'le  trusses  should  not  be  less  than  about 
14  ft.,  and  side  walls  should  have  at  least  6  ft.  of  continuous  sash. 
Artificial  light  will  be  bright  enough  with  G-amperc  arc  lamps 
hung  40  ft.  apart.  Tiie  best  floor  for  a  forge  shop  is  a  5-in.  layer 
of  cinders  over  a  base  of  sand  and  gravel.  The  cinders  should 
contain  just  enough  clay  to  cement  them  well  together,  and  the 
floor  should  be  rolled  and  sprinkled  every  day  for  a  month.  To 
prevent  mud  forming  from  the  cementing  clay,  the  surface 
should  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  sand. 

Foundries. — The    foundry    must    have    space    for    machine 
moulding,  bench  moulding  and  core  making,  as  well  as  for  siiid 


Iff  Ml 


Tnmhr 


Fia.  105. — I?ectangular  cnginr  house. 


mixing  and  storage,  coke  storage,  sand  blast  and  cleaning, 
charging  and  cupola  floors,  supply  room,  lavatories  and  office. 
There  is  a  decided  tendency  in  foundries  toward  the  use  of  square 
buildings.  Cupola  rooms  are  set  in  the  side  bays  away  from  the 
main  shop.  Transportation  on  the  ground  only  is  not  always 
economical,  and  there  should  generally  l>e  overhead  appliances 
as  well.  Cranes  and  trolleys  should  hang  from  a  heavy  system 
of  trusses,  leaving  the  floor  free  from  obstruction  of  columns. 

Round  Houses.--  In  choosing  between  rectangular  (Fig.  10r>) 
and  circular  engine  houses,  the  first  form  requires  about  50  per 


Pi 

if 

If 
III 


•JOS     KXaiXKKRISr,  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 

cent,  less  door  Mre;i  than  tlie  second,  and  has  straiglit  walls  and 
less  donis,  innking  a  rectani;iilar  luiildinf;  altu<:ethor  cheaper 
than  a  round  one.  liut  the  latter  type  has  other  advantages 
and  continues  in  favor. 

The  dimensions  of  a  round  house  will  depend  on  the  length 
of  engires  (Fig.  lOtl).  Turntahles  moved  by  an  electric  tractor  or 
comjiressed  air  must  lie  a  few  feet  longer  than  the  engine,  and 
enough  space  nnist  lie  left  for  doors  to  ojien  between  the  table 
and  the  inner  engine  house  wall.     Duors  shuukl  be  10  ft.  wide, 


I'lc.   10t>. — circular  ciiniiic  house. 


thus  leaving  some  clearance  at  each  side  of  the  engine  (Fig.  107). 
Hy  li\iiig  on  a  mininnim  wiilth  of  pilaster  between  the  doors, 
tiie  panel  leii'MJi  at  the  inner  wall  will  be  determined.  .Sliding, 
swing  and  rolling  doors  liave  all  been  used,  but  as  those  which 
swing  on  hinges  at  the  side  are  in  danger  of  being  cloggetl  with 
snow  and  ice,  .  balanced  tloor  is  sometimes  preferred.  Steel 
rolling  doors  cost  more  than  either  of  the  others.  The  width  of 
tiie  building  should  be  10  to  1."  ft.  greater  than  the  length  of  th(3 
(Migine,  allowing  space  for  workmen  to  pass  when  the  doors  are 
closet'..  A  width  of  1)L*  ft.  is  generalh'  enough  for  ordinary  largo 
locomotives,  but  Mallet  engines,  some  of  which  have  a  length  of 
ll-'Oft.,  will  ecjuire  special  housing.  I'igure  108  siiows  a  turn- 
talilo  in  use  on  the  A.  T.  &  S.  F.  Ry.  for  turning  Mallet  engines. 


*>:4fir' 


« 


A'077;;.S  (>\  SI'KCIAL  liUILDIXCS 


209 


Willis  sliould  1>(>  of  hrick  or  coiiciete  hlocks,  hccjiuso  iiionolitliic 
conci-t  te  is  too  incouvi-iiifiit  to  repair  wlwn  damajiod,  thoujih  it 
is  suitaltlc  for  tlio  foundations.  As  runaway  engines  occasionally 
{TO  tlir()uj;ii  the  outer  wall,  it  is  bettor  to  place  an  arch  or  lintel 
at  the  >■  :if  each  track,  which  would  prevent  the  roof  from 
falling  if  tlie  walls  should  he  Jjroken  down.  The  building  should 
be  divided  l)y  occasional  fire  walls,  six  to  eight  stalls  apart,  and 
these  should  extend  above  the  roof. 


^nf>mmmfmm 


I  fii 


I 


rv^»w»^»T7^(^ 


'J'A'fil'W^W 


Fi<:.   107 


-IiiM<lo  and  outsido  dovations  of  roundhouse. 


\it rifled  brick  grouted  in  tar  or  pitch  makes  the  best  floor. 
■Wood  wears  out  too  (juickiy,  and  concrete  with  granolithic  top 
is  easily  cracked  or  Ijroken  uniler  the  weight  of  trucks  and  wheels. 
Pits  under  the  tracks  should  be  50  to  00  ft.  long,  4i  ft.  wide 
and  J  to  3i  ft.  deep,  and  they  should  be  convex  at  the  bottom 
allowing  water  to  drain  to  cither  side  (Fig.  109). 
11 


k 


210     EXuINEERING  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


Nort:s  ON  SPECIAL  nrrLDixds 


211 


Roofs  should  slope  awiiy  from  the  turntable  and  when  steel 
trusses  arc  used,  a  ceilinjr  should  l)e  placed  below  them,  jjccause 
steel  is  rapidly  corroded  by  gases  from  the  enfiines.  Wood  or 
concrete  framing  is,  therefore,  preferable.  Concrete  roofs  in 
very  cold  climates  should  be  double,  or  have  some  other  provision 
for  preventing  condensation.  When  slate  covering  is  used,  the 
outer  purlins  may  be  slightly  convex,  and  the  inner  ones  concave, 
to  avoid  hips  and  valleys  at  the  trusses,  but  for  tar  and  gravel 
roofing  curved  purlins  are  unnecessary. 


^Sm^Xffs  8$  1^ 


Section  A-A.    (Fiq.5.1 
■Vm6  'Htmhck  If 


\ 


"iii'WnNaili 


Bituminous 


H Br 

^  Transverse     Section. 


i      Vo:^yi.''oi'. 

■  ii-,.-r/.-.-  ^:■•^ 


^iabovtFhor 


Ctmtnt., 


Longitudinal     Section    at    tnd. 


Fig.   109. — Pit  details  lor  locomotive  shops. 

Windows  should  cover  most  of  the  outer  wall  and  they  should 
be  balanced  on  trunnions  and  opc-ated  in  clusters  by  a  shaft  and 
wheel.  Those  over  the  doors  should  also  be  pivoted  for  the 
sake  of  ventilation.  Skylights  or  swing  sash  on  monitor  sides 
may  be  used,  and  all  interior  surfaces  above  a  dark  colored  dado 
5  ft.   high,  should  be  whitewashed   or  painted  a  light  color. 

Smoke  jacks  are  sometimes  made  of  asbestos  lumber  and  they 
should  fit  down  tight  over  the  stacks,  and  have  dampers  to  stop 
the  draft  when  not  in  use.  '  nitor  windows  or  individual 
ventilators  will  supply  more  ventilation  when  it  is  needed. 
Round  houses  in  cold  climates  must  be  heated^  preferably  by  a 


if. 


''ifkVj'L 


•j\2    i:.\(;i\i:i:h'f\(i  or  snoi's  .i.v/;  iactouh-js 

liut    Itlast.    tliduuh    sicMiii    pijics   aic   sniiicl  iiiics   used.      Circuliir 
loiiiiil   lioiiscs  ciPiniilcti'  usually  cdsi    from   Sl:5(H)  to  $1(100  jkt 

.Mall. 

Car  Shops.— Till'  >\/v  aiul  wciiilit  of  jiart-s  mkuIc  aud  iiaiidlcd  in 
car  sliop.i,  iicci's.-.itatc  a  onc-.sloi-y  l)uildiii;i  with  lioor  on  tin-  solid 
};ouiid.  The  location  for  tlicsc  .shops  is  iiii])ortiuit,  as  they 
usually  lU'cd  a  lariic  area  of  land,  not  only  for  spr("a<lin>5  nut  their 
one-storv  huildiniis.  liut  for  storing;  ('ars  and  hulky  material.  .V 
tract  just  outside  of  some  lai'.m'  city  is  usually  the  best,  wherelaiul 
values  and  taxes  are  low  and  a!)untlance  of  lalior  near  at  hand, 
rienty  of  extra  land  should  tie  acipiired  at  iirst,  so  there  will  be 
room  for  exiiansion.  In  Hat  or  low  re^ionslike  the  prairie  states, 
it  is  often  iiest  to  raise  the  frrade  from  2  to  d  ft.  aliove  tin! 
surroundin.i;  country,  and  where  natural  draina.ti<'  is  not  available, 
sewers  may  empty  into  an  artilicial  siunp.  from  which  the  drain- 
aj;e  can  l>e  ])vunped  and  dischar?:ed  into  the  neai'est  watercourse. 
An  excellent  metiiod  "f  avran.^iuii  the  luiildinfis  is  to  ])lace  them 
rif^ht  and  left  of  ;.  central  elevatei-  cianeway,  crossin.sj;  trans- 
versely all  the  tracks  which  enter  the  su'cessive  Imildinjrs  and  the 
sidinf^s  i)ara!lel  to  them.  \W  means  of  this  traveling  crane, 
material  from  any  of  the  liuildin.iis  may  1>(>  loaded  (ui  to  carsor 
lifted  from  them  and  conveyed  to  any  other  track  desired. 
When  cit  V  water  is  not  ol)tainalile.  an  underground  reservoir  nuist, 
lie  made  and  ]iressin'('  can  be  seemed  fi'om  an  ele\ated  tank 
100  ft.  in  heiiiht  or  more.  The  new  car  shops  at  Winiupei;,  Man. 
(M^.  110),  wiiich  are  amon^  the  finest  over  built,  ai'e  laid  oiu  as 
docribed  aliove.tii(>  reservoir  bein.i;-  00  ft.  wide,  I'TO  ft.  lon<i  and 
L'.')  ft.  deep,  capable  of  iioldin.u  2,000.000  jiallons,  and  the  elevated 
tank  12.')  ft.  iii.uh  will  hohl  100,000  j;a!lons. 

Car  Houses. —  Uuildiniis  for  the  .storaj;e  of  cars  (Fi<r.  Ill) 
contain  and  cover  j;oods  of  jireat  value,  and  as  paint,  oil  and 
varnish  are  u.sed  aliout  them,  precaution  .slnnild  be  taken  to  pre- 
vent fin\  Walls  which  face  danjicrons  ex])osur(^s  should  be 
without  windows,  and  the  whole  buildinj;  shoidd  be  divided 
by  fire  walls  extendin,^  '.i  ft.  abcne  the  roof  into  jiround  areas 
of  .■)000  to  20,000  .si|,  ft.  peninfrs  in  tiie  walls  should  have 
lire  doors.  Franunj;;  of  wood  mill  coust ruction  has  been  found  to 
be  a  better-  fire  risk  than  exposed  steel,  for  tiie  latter  collap.ses 
([uickly  ur.der  licat.  ('(.rnices  should  be  of  b;-i<-k  or  metal  lather 
than  of  wood,  anil  windows  should  have  wire  f^lass.  Partitions 
shouUl  be  firejiroof  and  boiler  rooms  should  be  separated  from 


NOTi:s  ox  srrcfAL  ii(iLi)i.\(;s 


213 


a 

a 


o 


y. 


i   I 


\\V\  \  \      \\\\\\\\\ 


214    E.\(;i.\i:i':iii\G  of  shops  axd  FAcroiuKs 

tho  car  slicd,  tlic  wlmlc  iilaiit  hciii;^  iJi-otcctcd  aiiaiiist  fiiv  l)y  a 
lihcral  use  "f  liii'  l)ails,  autoiuatic  spiiiiklcr.s,  .stand  piiu's,  and 
flicmical  cxlinfiuisluMs. 

Cotton  Mills. — ("iiliiiniis  in  cDtton  mills  should  ho  spaced  23  ft. 
apart  on  centers  transversely  nf  tin;  huililinf;,  and  tho  ins'iU^ 
width  will,  therefore,  he  It',  ft.  for  one  row  of  colunins,  00  ft.  for 
two  rows,  and  !>-  ft.  for  three  rows.  For  greater  convenience, 
some  architects  use  outside  widths  of  .")(),  To,  and  100  ft.  re- 
spectively, and  correspondiiij;  clear-story  hei;;hts  of  12,  13,  and 
11  ft. 


Fig.  111. — .\  car  house. 


Power  Houses. — Some  iUructural  features  of  power  house 
desi<;ii  may  he  illustrated,  hy  descrihinj;  hriefly  two  jMaiits 
recently  tlesijiued  hy  the  writer,  in  connection  with  an  electrical 
engineer  in  each  case. 

The  first  of  these  (Fig.  112)  was  for  in  interiirhan  electric  rail- 
way company  in  Ohio.  It  consists  of  an  enfjino  room  52  hy  lU) 
^t  and  a  hoiler  room  02  hy  140  ft.,  containing  the  hoilcrs  and  a 
si^.-pended  coal  hunker  12  l)y  75  ft.  on  the  outer  side  of  the 
l)uilding,  adjoining  the  railway  company's  projjorty.  The 
engines  anil  heavy  electrical  machinery  stand  on  concrete  founda- 
tions, the  space  around  the  foundations  l)eneath  the  nuichinery 
floor  heing  left  ojien  and  used  for  hasement  or  cellar  .storage. 
The  remainder  of  the  engine  room  floor,  not  occupied  \>y  t!ie 
engine  foundations,  is  covered  with  a  reiiJorccd  concrete  slab 
on  steel  heains.  The  'eel  fi-aming  of  this  floor  weighed  22  tons 
and  cost  $1100  in  plai  and  the  reinforced  concrete  slah  cost 
$3100  or  50  cciit.s  per  gtiuare  toot. 

The  height  under  the  trusses  in  both  hoiler  and  engine  room 


NOTES  ON  SPECIAL  BUILDINGS 


215 


Fia.  112. — A  power  plant. 


I 


i'lCi     f;.\7,7.VA7;/i7.\7/  i)F  Sl/Ol'S  AM)  F.\(T(>UIi:S 


is  L'l  ft.  Sliito  cnvciiii;;  is  hiiil  (ni  2-iii.  iiluiik  ('iiiiicd  on  steel 
trusses  of  tlu*  l''ink  type  willi  stiff  top  clionls,  pia<'e<l  ID  ft. 
ajiiirt.  Jack  piiiiiiis  of  lO-iti.  I'liaimels  are  framed  between  tlie 
tnisses  to  carry  7-in.  cliannel  jack  laftcrs,  o  ft.  4  in,  apart.  On 
the  top  of  eacli  truss  and  jack  rafter  is  a  li  l>y  ")  in.  wood  luiilinc, 
piece  to  wliich  the  plank  is  spiked,  tiie  joints  Ix'inj:  parallel  with 
tlie  cuvc  as  re(|uirfd  for  slate  coveriii};.  Koth  the  lioiler  and 
engine  room  have  doulile  pitched  roofs,  forniin;;  a  coiitiiuious 
flutter  over  the  center  partition  wail  hetween  tlie  two  rooms. 
.\t  the  (>Ti(ls  the  roofs  are  hipjieil,  and  two  pani'ls  ov(^r  each  niom 
have  stiff-aii;j;le  Inaciiifr  in  the  i>lane  of  the  iiottom  chord  to  keep 
the  trusse.'!  properly  in  line.  These  two  luaced  panels  are  united 
with  a  line  of  anj;les  in  tlu?  center  of  each  span,  anil  in  the  jilaiu* 
of  the  rafters  also,  the  same  two  panels  have  ilouMe  rod  hracing. 
The  trus.ses  .stand  on  plate  and  angle  columns  in  the  walls  and  are 
rigidly  knee  braced  to  them.  In  tiie  engine  room  is  a  10-ton 
hand  traveling  crane  running  on  l.Vin.  beam  girders,  which  an? 
carried  on  coluum  brackets.  The  presence  of  this  craiu!  enables 
the  varii'is  i)arts  of  the  engines  ami  machinery  to  be  .set  or 
replaced  -umt   injuring  the   trusses.     Over  the   boilers   is   a 

coiitinuou,'.  ventilator,  48  ft.  in  length,  the  sides  of  which  are 
covered  with  fixed  louvres,  and  the  roof  with  slate  similar  to 
that  on  the  rest  of  the  building.  .\t  the  rear  of  the  boilers  is  an 
elevated  ])latonn  04  ft.  in  length,  framed  with  0-andS-in.  beams, 
and  supported  on  steel  columns. 

The  brick  walls  serve  merely  as  ciu'tains,  because  the  roof  aiul 
crane  loads  are  carried  directly  on  the  columns.  The  largest 
single  item  of  expen.se  in  the  steel  work  is  the  coal  bunker,  which 
lias  a  caj)acity  of  200  tons.  Coal  is  hauled  uj)  an  iiuline  in  hopper 
bottom  cars  and  the  coal  is  emi)tied  from  them  info  the  bunkers, 
the  frame  of  which  is  strong  enough  to  safely  carry  the  weight  of  a 
car  holding  .")()  tons  of  coal  and  weighing  lo  tons  when  empty. 
The  tracks  and  biniker  are  enclosed  and  covered  with  a  corru- 
gated i'-on  shed  as  protection  from  the  weather  anil  the  snow. 
The  toe  or  lower  end  of  the  bunker  hangs  over  fh(>  front  end  or 
doors  of  the  fire  box  anil  boilers,  and  six  lines  of  chutes  convey 
the  coal  down  to  automatic  stokers.  The  discharge  of  coal 
through  these  chutes  is  regulated  by  means  of  .swinging  gates 
operated  by  hand.  The  space  below  the  suspended  bunker  is 
used  by  the  workmen  In  the  boiler  room.  The  bunker  is  lined 
throughout  with  J-in.  steel  plates,  and  the  bottom  is  .supported 


SOTFS  O.V  SPECIAL  RVJLDISGS  l\  r 

on  O-in.  1k>uiiis,  (1i(>  wliolo  Ix-in^  siispctulfd  from  two  lincj.  'f  pinto 
pirilcr  one  on  cacli  wiilc,  uliidi  stand  oii  steel  loliiiim.s.  Tiii! 
H|)!ice  lictwcen  the  track  stringers  is  left  open  for  iidtiiittiiiK  coal 
from  the  liopj)er  lars,  and  the  strinjiers  arc,  therefore  braced 
over  to  the  jjlate  ^i'ders  at  the  sides.  The  (piaiititios  of  rtteel 
in  the  various  parts,  and  the  cost  thereof,  are  j;iven  in  thofol- 
lowiiif?  schedule: 

(  omI  l>iinkcr  for  ."O-ton  oarH.    .      7t  foiiK  of  hf.-<>l,  cost  S.V.'OO 

HiinkiT  nIhmI IS  Ions  of  Mc-I,  cost     L'KK) 

Mnniiie-rooin  lloor 22  tons  of  stci'l,  ciwt     1 1(K) 

Stt^-I  roof  fnirno (j;,  tons  of  stJH'i,  cost     -I.VH) 

Traveling  crane,  10  tons .    i  loo 


-BO  1  — 


><9'l'>-«  8''-<  8''-^  S  >-^  J  iW 
»-. —  42  2'^ >< 


-—50  4 


Fi(!.   113. — Power  plant  at  llimtingt on,  W,  Va. 

The  Other  power  house  {V'v^.  W.i)  was  for  an  iaterurban  railway 
in  West  \irfrinia.  Tlic  building  is  142  ft.  long  by  94  ft.  wide,  and 
is  divided  by  a  brick  wall  through  the  iiiiildle,  making  two  rooms 
of  c(iual  size.  The  engine  room  has  a  l.l-ton  hand  traveling 
crane  for  lifting  machinery  parts,  and  \\n-  rails  on  which  the  crane 
runs  are  fastened  to  the  top  flange  of  the  crane  beams  with  hook 


•.'IS     HSalSEHIilSd  OF  SHOPS  AM)  FACTORIES 

Imlts.  'riii:^  allows  iKljiirttiiiciil  of  tin'  riiiln  to  suit  tlioiliMiiincrlu'- 
t\M'cM  tliccraiH'  wheels.  'I'lit' roof  surf  aci'  of  both  rooiimis  cuvt'r«'d 
with  JS-iii.  slate  oii  steil  an^:le  purlins,  '1  by  1  J  liy  i\  in.,  spaced 
\'.\  ill.  apart.  'I'he  lioiler  room  has  eoiitimious  >;alvaui/etl  iron 
louvres  on  tlie  monitor  and  the  onftino  room,  four  ciriular  48- 
in.  >;ulviinize<l  iron  ventilators.  Between  the  enniue  beds  in  the 
tlynamo  room  is  a  system  of  steel  beams  carrying;  corriij^ated 
iron  arches  and  concreti'  lloor.  ''"''e  steel  work  in  the  floors  costs 
$1  U)(),  and  the  \\eij;ht  of  steel  in  ine  roof  and  crane  system  is  75 
tons,  and  its  cost  StililM),  eipiivalent  to  about  1.')  cent.<  per  S(iuare 
foot  of  floor  covered. 


^^ 


("IIAITKR  XIX 
STORAGE  POCKETS,  AND  HOISTING  TOWERS 

In  n-i'ciit  yciii's.  the  liiiiulliii;;  nf  ((imI  in  lar^c  quaiititics  hsiH 
led  tn  llic  (■(nisiractiiiii  of  scNcial  new  furins  itf  HtoruKC  p«>i'k«'tf*, 
HdiiH'  of  wliicli  all'  liircuilli  illiistratcil.  While  these  pockets 
were  forineily  Imilt  of  lieavy  tiinlier  thai  would  decay  or  wejir  out 
ill  a  few  years,  tliey  are  now  framed  laif^ely  of  steel,  and  in  many 
cases  lire  ulso  lined  wiili  steel  plates. 

r -'■ ^ '' - 


' 

r--*':ri^^^''^^^^i!=H. 

^           ^ 

w^^ 


Fici.   11  I.— A  2()0-t()n  p<ickot. 

The  type  is  illustrated  hyajjlant  near  Boston,  which  contains 
four  pockets  liaviiiff  a  capacity  of  2(K)()  tons  each,  and  one 
l)ocket  with  a  capacity  of  CiOOO  tons.'  Many  others  nu'{;ht  l>e 
mentioned,  such  as  those  at  "Worcester,  Mass.,  ai  1  a  large  one 
designed  by  the  writer  at  Montreal.  The  2000-ton  pocket 
(Fig.  114)  mentioned  above  was  3")  ft.  wide,  80  ft.  long  and  72  ft. 
higii  to  the  eave,  and  coal  was  conveyed  to  it  by  cable  cars 
running  on  steel  trestle  work,  the  cars  entering  the  pocket  through 

'  H.   G.   TyrrcU,  in  Railroad  Gazrttc,  Oct.  4,  1901. 

219 


•jL'o    ]:.\(;i.\i:Kiii\<i  of  shops  axd  factories 

opciiiiif^s  in  tlio  iHiuf.  Tlic  four  jxx'kcts  ^\■^n•o  convpiiiently 
located  to  supply  coal  to  tlu>  ailjuiuiiif;  ovi-ns.  Thoy  were  liiicil 
witii  j>laiik  and  covered  witli  a  jralvauizcd  iron  roof,  and  tlio 
total  \veij;lit  of  steel  in  one  ])ocket  was  olO.OOO  Ih.,  which  is 
e(|uivalent  to  'I'hi  Ih.  of  steel  for  every  ton  of  coal  stored.  Tho 
COOO-ton  jxx'ket  on  the  dock  received  coal  directly  from  the 
vessels,  t)u  I  he  top  of  the  pock(>t  al)ove  the  I'ocif  were  four  steel 
hoisting  towiM's  mounted  on  wheels,  and  the  position  of  the  towers 
could  l)e  suited  to  the  hatchways  in  the  ships.  This  pocket  was 
28i  ft.  wide,  and  V.Vl  ft.  lonj;,  and  stood  on  a  framework  of 
beams  and  columns,  leaviu':;  a  clear  lieadway  of  11  ft.  heneath 
for  the  passage  of  cars.  It  v.as  lined  inside  wiili  i)lank  which  is 
held  in  jxtsition  l)y  12-in.  I  heani  studs,  1  ft.  apart.  The 
sloping  iio])j)er  sides  wi'W.  of  i)lank  on  tindter  hlockiiif;'.  Hoof 
ti'usses  with  a  3-in.  ])itch,  i)laced  12  ft.  apart,  carried  channel 
iron  ])urlins  and  corrugated  iron  covi'rinji;.  Tlie  hopjx'r  j^ates 
weic  (>\treniely  siini>le  hut  elTective.  Tho  total  iiuantities  of 
niaierial  in  the  (iOOU-ton  ])ocket  '.\-ere  as  follows: 

Steel  frame <U'->.(MM)  lli. 

One  liiiiulriMl  li(i|)|n'rs ;{'.l,(l(M)  Ih. 

()n«  luirulrcd  li(i|i|i('r  };:if('s 17,000  lli. 

('(irnijiat-   I  iron 1 1..")00  si\.  ft. 

Spni.'c  IuimImt 17,:!0()  It.  B.  .M. 

Tlie  total  wei,;:iit  of  steel  cori'esponds  to  l<i(i  Ih.  fur  every  ton  of 
C()al  stored,  wiiich  is  ei|ual  toliV  Hi.  nf  stei'l  for  e\('rv  cubic  foot 
of  contents.  The  idof  iiad  small  liop))ers  alxiul  VI  ft.  apart, 
tiiroujih  wliicli  coal  was  rei-eived  from  the  lioistin.n  towers,  and 
the  pocket  in  turn  discharged  its  contents  into  cars  on  the  three 
tracks  underneatli.  The.-ie  tracks  were  connected  witii  inclined 
trestle  woi'k  on  whidi  the  coal  was  conveyed  to  tiie  four  smaller 
oven  pockets. 

The  lOOO-ton  i)ock(>t  at  Montreal  is  2S  ft.  S  in.  wide,  h\\  ft. 
hinii  and  loo  ft.  lon^.  Like  t lie  one  just  ilesc  rilieil,  it  stands  on  a 
frame  wm  k  of  lieams  and  columns.  lea\in;i  a  clear  headway  of 
11  ft.  underneaiii  foi'  the  passa;j,('  of  cais.  In  desi;;ninji  it.  tho 
foUowiu}?  units  were  used: 

Wfi^lit  (if  coul .")()  11).  per  culiic  fiiot 

Wind  pressure :!0  II).  ]iiT  .si|\i:trc  foot 

Total  roof  louil 10  III.  |HT  .'^iiuare  foot 

Steel  in  lension        l.'i.OOO  lli.  per  siiii:irc  incli 

SliM'l  in  coinpres.sion    r_',0(»0  lli.  per  .sipiiire  inch 

Filler  stri>,s.s  in  lieain.s 10,00(1  II).  [ht  Mjuare  inch 


STOlt.Ulh'  roCKETS  .LVD  HOISTING  TOWfliS  221 


Tliis  iii'ckct  was  (lividctl  into  tliirly-tliicc  panels  of  12  ft.  IJ 
in.  and  was  lined  tlnou.niiout  witli  oak  plank.  The  total  weight 
of  stei'l,  includiii};  the  pocket  itself  and  the  ]ilatforin  of  heani.s  and 
eolunins  on  whieh  it  stands,  was  titlli.OOO  lb.  This  is  equivalent 
to  lIKi  11).  of  steel  for  every  ton  of  coal  stored.  Another  desij^n 
for  the  same  pocket,  with  J-in.  steel  plate  lining  instead  of 
plank,  contained  98;5,()()()  11).  of  .steel,  equal  to  24.")  lb.  for  every 
ton  of  coal.  These  ii;!;ures  do  not  include  in  either  case,  the  rails 
on  which  the  hoisting  toweis  travel,  amounting  to  about  10,000 
lb. 

The  abo\e  weijihts  of  steel  correspond  to  3  to  4  lb.  per  cubic 
foot  of  contents.  The  weight  of  steel  in  storage  pockets  varies 
almost  directly  accortling  to  the  number  of  tons  stored  and  for 
plunk-lined  pockets,  is  from  KiO  to  170  lb.  per  ton  of  contents, 
increasing  to  2  10-2.")0  lb.  ))er  ton  of  contents  where  the  pockets 
have  steel  lining.  If  they  are  designed  for  the  storage*  of  some 
heavier  material  such  as  ore,  the  above  figures  will  .still  u]')i)ly. 
A  large  bin  designed  by  tli(>  writer  for  export  to  South  Africa,  for 
the  storages  of  gold  ore  weighing  100  lb.  ])er  cubic  foot,  contains 
7  11).  of  steel  jx-r  cubic  foot  of  bin,  or  170  lb.  of  steel  for  everj-  ton 
of  ore,  the  I'atio  remaining  the  same  as  before.  These  figures 
give  a  ready  and  convenient  means  of  estimating  approximately, 
the  (luantity  of  material  in  these  structiu'cs. 

The  coal  pocket  shown  in  Fig.  1 1.")  is  somewhat  similar  to  those 
previously  descriijed,  l)Ut  in  this  case,  the  coal  is  l)rought  to  the 
site  by  rail  insteatl  of  watiM-.  At  one  end  is  ;i  sloping  trestle,  upon 
which  cars  are  drawn  to  the  track  above  the  bin,  where  they  are 
cmi)tied  through  .sliding  ho])]iers  into  the  pocket.  The  loaded 
cars  are  delivereel  on  an  adjoining  si<ling  and  are  taken  uj)  tlu; 
inclined  trestle  by  means  of  a  cable  ])usher,  which  is  oj)erated 
fiom  an  .'ngine  plant.  The  jiocket  is  lined  with  H-in.  yellow  j)inc> 
and  lias  a  i)lank  roof  on  steel  stringers.  The  side  studs  lire  1  ft. 
iil)art  and  the  main  panels  are  Iti  ft.  each. 

SusjxMision  bunkers  (I'ig.  1  Ki)  are  jji-obably  the  most  economi- 
cal form  in  metal,  for  mucii  hea\y  beam  framing  is  avoided,  and 
the  metal  plates  vhich  served  merely  as  a  lining,  in  the  form 
described  abo\(>.  now  sup])ort  the  load  by  tension.  The  type  is 
desirable  chiefly  when  metal  plates  are  rcejuired  inside.  For 
timber  lining,  tiie  old  style  with  plank  supported  on  a  system  of 
incliiK'd  b(>ams,  ma}'  be  found  clieajier.  Patents  on  suspension 
bunkers  have  been  granted,  but  these  do  not  include  all  forms  of 


222     l-SGINEERISG  OF  SHOPS  ASD  FACTORIES 


construction,  for  similar  pockets  are  made 
by  otliers  without  patented  features.  Metal 
lias  the  advantage  of  occupying  somewhat 
smallerspacethan  timberorconcrete  fram- 
ing. Pockets  of  some  kind  are  now  almost, 
indispensable  for  power  houses  or  wherever 
a  large  quantity  of  coal  is  stored. 


■fi-] 

-nr^-TT" 

v. 

U 

is 

i 

Concrete  coal  pockets  of  3000  ton 
capacity  or  more,  c"st  from  S">."jO  to  $7.-)0 
per  ton  of  capniity,  and  concrete  stand 
pipes,  not  including  llie  foundations,  cost 
from  2^  to  3  ct-nt.^  i>>-r  ga'.lnn  of  contents. 
Combination  coal  pockets  with  supports 


M 


STORAGE  POCKETS  AND  HOISTING  TOWERS  223 


Mean  Hiil 


~itiaa.lrS!!!tF<k— 


Fia.  116. — Doiler  house,  showing  coal  handling  equipment.     Ilecker  Flour 

Mills,  New  York. 


•^^    <^^^  s.^    e:^    ^^    ,^^- 
Fio.  117. — A  concrete  coal  pocket. 


I 


221     ESUISEERISG  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


^^OI331ij[IiC^^ 


n 


TMl' 


"". 


g'^  -  -    150 


Ej 


It  ' 

...     ^         ;^. 

Fffi  --'ir-'\-  ' 

JLJU 


T*T 


—  a. 


-ii .  V  ■ 


rrr-rTTm 


'-,; 


I 


.-■^---Ir- 


!1..L.. 


-a-- 


■nr 


— -ji  -. 


ZT 


-i 


JiL.iL,Lii.  ■ 


wi;'  »<    is'o' 


.....L. 
-  -  ? 


-_-.^ 


P  I  a  o  , 

Fia.  118. 


>^. 


Fin.   110.— Ash  pocket  at  Philadelphia.     Philadelphia  Ilapid  Transit  Co. 


STORAUE  I'OCKKTS  AXD  llOISTIAG  TOWERS  225 


d 


u 


220    i:.\f!i.\.r:i:iii\(;  of  shops  a\d  f  'Cjohies 

and  floor  of  ((mcn-tc  and  walls  of  tiiiihcr,  vnM  ,l)'int  V)  per  ton 
of  cai)acit3-.  Some  tli-tails  of  coiuTote  coal  po»k(  *;  arc  sh",  u  in 
Fif;s.  117  to  120. 

Hoisting  Towers.' — Coal  holstiiif?  towers  on  the  wharfs  at  sea- 
board cities  were  formerly  constructed  of  wood,  as  were  also  the 
jxickets  to  which  they  deliver  coal,  but  with  the  introduction  of 
steel,  many  were  afterward  built  of  metal,  which,  though  more 
expensive  than  tlie  old  style,  make  a  safer  and  more  satisfactory 
hoisting  tower  (Fijr.  121).  Tlu  y  are  usually  mounted  on  wiieels 
to  travel  on  the  top  of  a  storafje  pocket,  all  of  those  descrilud  hero 
being  of  that  type.     Other  kinds  are  also  used,  where  the  tower 


Via.  121. — Coal  handling  plant  at  Dollar  Hay. 

is  combined  witli  a  lower  house  containing  the  weighing  and 
crusliiiig  hopper,  tiie  whole  being  mounted  on  wheels  traveling 
on  the  ground.  A  design  of  this  kind  was  made  l)y  the  writer  for 
The  Hoslon  Elevateil  Railroad  Company,  at  the  Lincoln  Wharf 
plant. 

The  type  of  tower  traveling  above  a  storage  pocket,  is  illus- 
trated by  one  for  the  Metropolitan  Street  Railway  Company  of 
New  York,  the  frame  being  ").")  ft.  high  and  24  ft.  s(|uare  at  the 
base,  with  a  single  l)oom  31  ft.  in  length  overhanging  the  water 
and  boats,  'i'lie  tower  has  four  legs  strongly  braced  together,  and 
the  lower  part  contains  an  engine  room  from  whicii  the  hoisting 
is  controlled.  The  engine  house  is  roofed  over  and  enclosed  on 
the  sides  with  corrugatctl  iron,  having  windows  enough  to  uJniit 

'  II.  G.  Tyrrell,  in  Engineering  Xews,  May  30,  1001. 


^-^m' 


STORAGE  POCKETS  AND  HOISTIXG  TOWERS  227 


228    K.\(ifsi:i-:ni.\(!  of  shops  asd  factouiks 

the  lijilit.  Till-  cnislicr.s  arc  supjxirlcd  oi,  franiiiif;  tibovit  8  ft. 
hi'low  tlic  ciijiiiu'  idi'iu  floor,  'llu-  lioppcr  is  of  ^t-'nx.  plato 
witli  ii  frame  of  allelic  .uhI  rliaiiiu'l  iron.  Tlic  tower  was  desifjiied 
to  carry  a  live  load  of  three  tons  at  tiic  end  of  tlu*  hooiii  with  an 
allowance  of  KM)  i)er  cent,  for  inij)act.  It  iontains  18  tons  of 
steel  and  cost,  incliidiii};  door,  roof  and  sides,  $12250. 

Another  tower,  somewhat  similar  to  the  hist,  desi<;neil  l>y  tlie 
writer  for  the  ]3ominion  Coal  Comimny  at  Montreal,  has  a  heijjht 
of  (>;}  ft.  and  a  l)oom  ol  ft.  lon^;,  with  ii  base  21)  ft.  lon^  and  2o  ft. 
wide.  The  hoom  is  swivoled  at  the  roar  end  and  was  propor- 
tioned for  a  live  load  of  3J  tons,  with  provision  of  100  per 
cent,  for  impact.  The  floor  is  very  heavy,  hein}?  made  of  12-and 
IS-in.  steel  heanis.  It  has  a  ladder  on  one  side,  enabling  the 
operator  to  inspect  a!id  oil  the  bearings  at  the  tower  top.  The 
total  assumed  load  at  the  end  of  the  boom  is  18,000  lb.  The 
tower  is  mounted  on  seven  wheels  and  has  a  safety  clamp  at  the 
rear  to  prevent  tijiping.  It  contains  27  tons  of  steel  besides  the 
trolley  rope  and  operating  machinery.  The  hopper  is  lined  with 
plank  and  the  house  enclosed  with  sheathing.     (Fig.  122.) 


#^J^ 


CHAPTER  XX 
FACTORY  HEATING 

Heating  may  be  done  by  the  use  of  direct  or  exhaust  steam 
passing  through  coils  of  pipe,  or  by  warm  air  in  hirge  (juantitics 
forc'id  l)y  fans  tiirough  ducts  to  different  parts  of  the  shop.  As 
the  latter  type  of  heatirg  is  the  one  best  adapted  to  shops  and 
factories  it  is  described  at  greatest  length  in  the  following  pages. 

In  the  heating  and  ventilating  of  industrial  buildings,  economy 
is  of  prime  importance,  and  it  is  from  this  standpoint  that  the 
acceptance  or  rejection  of  the  fan  system  must  be  decided,  though 
sanitation  even  from  a  mercenary  consideration  must  not  be 
disregarded,  for  upon  the  comfort  and  well  being  of  the  workmen 
must  their  efficiency  and  contentment  depend. 

Apparatus  for  Fan  System. — A  heating  system  is  composed  of 
three  essential  elements — the  heater,  the  fun  and  the  distribut- 


Fio.  123.— Fan  system  in  automobile  plant  of  George  M.  Pierce,  Buffalo. 


ing  ducts.  The  heater  consists  of  rows  of  vertical  1-in.  wrought- 
iron  pipes,  screwed  into  a  manifold  cast-iron  base  which  is  divided 
into  separate  units  or  sections.     The  coils  are  tightly  enclo.sed  on 

229 


tlic  top  1111(1  h'uU'h  l)y  slici't  .sicfl  casiii;;.  Tlic  air  is  drawn  or 
forced  tliroii^li  hctwccii  t  lie  jiipcs  \>y  Micaiis  of  a  (•ftitrifii;;al  fan 
wliicli  coiinci'ts  with  tlu>  licalcr  i  asinj;.  '|"lic  fan  sliould  l>e  umply 
large  and  slionld  he  driven  at  snllicient  wpeed  to  jjroduce  an  air 
velocity  of  about  lUtM)  ft.  jx'r  niinnle  tlirou;;li  tiie  clear  area  of 
the  coils.  Thi.s  velocity  is  an  important  condition  since  tho 
effectiveness  of  the  coils  is  laip'ly  dependent  upon  it.  Tho 
increaned  efliciency  of  the  heatinj;  surface  from  this  cause  is  so 
great  that  only  from  one-tiiird  to  one-fiftli  as  much  surface  in 
retpiirod  with  the  fan  system  as  with  direct  radiation.  Further, 
as  will  be  shown  later,  the  heat  is  so  applied  and  distributed  that 
it  is  far  more  thoroughly  utilized  than  in  ordinary  radiation. 

Heat  Losses. — Ileat  los.ses  occur  in  a  building  from  two  causes. 
First,  by  the  direct  transmission  of  heat  through  the  walls  and 
exterior  surfaces  of  tho  building,  and  second,  l)y  the  infiltraticm 
of  cold  air  from  without.  In  designing  a  heating  plant,  the  first 
of  these  los.ses  may  bo  very  accurately  determined  by  referring 
to  tables  showing  the  amount  of  heat  radiated  under  different 
conditions  through  various  thicknesses  of  walls,  windows,  doors, 
floors,  etc.  Tho  heat  loss  thro\igh  infiltration  differs  so  greatly 
in  various  sizes  and  constructions  of  buildings,  that  no  absolute 
rule  can  be  given.  Tho  aliowanc(>  to  be  made  for  lieat  loss  is 
necessarily  the  result  of  experience  and  of  careful  tests  of  previous 
installation. 

Infiltration  or  leakage  is  imxlucod  by  the  unbalaiu'cd  pressure 
of  tho  colunui  of  heated  air  within  the  building,  and  that  of  tho 
cold  air  without.  The  action  is,  in  jjriuciple,  precisely  like  that 
of  a  chimney.  Tho  ditTereiice  in  j)ressu-'  ])r<Kluced  can  bo 
measured  in  inches  of  wat(>r,  and  increases  in  direct  jjroportion 
to  tiie  difference  in  tem{)oraturo  between  the  air  within  tho 
building  and  that  without.  Since  the  flow  of  air  is  jiroportiona! 
to  th(>  S(|Uare  root  of  tho  pressure,  that  amount  of  air  entering 
or  leaving  the  building  through  leakage  will  bo  in  projjortion  ti> 
the  square  rout  of  the  difference  of  tom])eratun>.  The  effect  of 
this  leakage  i.s  as  evident  in  theory  as  it  is  uoticeabh"  in  practice. 
Tho  air  which  escaiios  from  the  building  is  naturally  the  very 
hottest  and,  therefore,  has  not  had  its  heat  fully  utilized,  while 
that  which  enters  along  the  floor  chills  the  air  at  the  lower  part 
of  the  building  percej)til)ly,  forming  a  cold  layer  of  air  which 
cannot  bo  removed  except  ]>\  a  j)o^Iiivo  circulation  or  diffusion 
with  lieuted  air  such  as  may  bo  socun-d  by  the  fan  system.     In 


FACTORY  HEATING 


231 


larRo  machiru'  hhops  and  foundries,  thi.s  hiyor  of  cohi  air  may 
fr(<ivi('nt!y  !•(•  fmuul  to  <'\f('n(l  from  I  to  (i  ft.  alutvc  tlio  floor, 
wiiilo  overlicad  tlu-re  is  a  volume  of  ovorhoatod  air  wiuch,  if 
utilized,  would  heat  the  entire  huiloinK.  The  moHt  effective 
remedy  for  this  evil  is  to  maintain  a  sli^lit  pressure  within  the 
building  by  means  of  a  fan  which  takes  a  portion  ..f  its  air  from 
without,  thereby  causing'  a  displacement  and  removal  of  cold  air. 

Fan  System  and  Direct  Radiation  Compared.— In  either  fan  or 
direct  radiation  systems,  ditficulty  is  likely  to  be  experienced 
from  the  rise  of  heated  air  which  forms  a  stratum  just  beneath 
the  roof.  In  machine  shoj)s  and  foundries,  owing  to  their 
heights  and  to  the  great  amount  of  skylight  which  is  usually 
provided,  the  loss  occasioned  by  this  action  of  the  heated  air  may 
be  considerable,  and  its  prevention  is  a  serious  problem.  In 
direct  radiation,  where  the  air  currents  are  wholly  due  to  the 
difference  in  temjjerature,  the  att(>ndant  loss,  which  is  relatively 
great,  is  unavoidable.  Practically,  the  only  way  in  which  thia 
heated  air  can  be  made  use  of  is  by  placing  the  coils  ne.\t  to  the 
wall  near  the  floor,  and  allowing  the  heated  currents  to  pass 
upward  along  the  walls,  but  even  Jiis  method  is  wasteful  from 
the  fact  that  it  heats  the  walls  unduly,  causing  a  loss  which  may 
usuidly  be  estimated  as  great  as  IV)  per  cent,  of  the  total  lieat 
supply.  Pijx's  near  the  walls  fail  to  properly  distribute  the  heat 
and  the  central  i)art  of  a  building  may  b(>  much  cooler  than  the 
sides.^  The  fan  system,  however,  since  the  method  of  distrii)uting 
tlie  air  is  entirely  mechanical,  affords  an  oi)port unity  for  utilizing 
its  heating  effects  to  thi-  very  best  advantage.  Various  methods 
of  distribution  have  been  devised  with  fan  system  whereby  the 
effect  of  a  rising  current  of  heated  air  is  almost  entirely  avoided. 
These  systems  in  general,  dei)end  upon  securing  diffusion  of  the 
heated  air  along  or  near  the  floor  line. 

Systems  of  Air  Supply.— The  method  of  distributing  the  air 
in  the  buildin-  l-  i  consideraticm  of  chief  importance.  The  usual 
methods  of  sui)plying  lieated  air  an-  First,  to  take  the  air 
entirely  from  without,  and  force  it  ilirectly  into  the  building 
through  distributing  ducts.  This  method  is  generally  known 
as  the  Plenum  System.  The  pressure  produced  in  the  building 
causes  ;>  continuous  exit  of  air  from  the  building,  either  through 
the  natural  openmgs  as  is  usually  the  ease  in  factories,  or  through 
special  vent  openings  provided  for  the  purpose.  This  effectually 
prevents  the  entrance  of  cold  air  from  without. 


j:!_'    ;  \(;i\ri.i:i\i:  or  siiors  .1  v/>  iwcroh'ii  .<; 

A  si'i 1      114I    liwic  I  iiiiiriiDii  iiirlliiitl  fur  ^liiij)  liilililiii^.s  ulicrp 

furred  veil  lalioi  i-  ii..l  a  ncii  sits,  is  to  dfaw  the  -U]>iily  o{  air 
fiitircly  fii.ii!  wilii.ii  till'  Imildiii^'  and  :ij;uiii  foici'  it  tliruiij;li  the 
distrilHiiii^  ducts,  causiiij;  a  cdiil  iiiiioiw  cirt'iilatiiiii  (if  tin  air 
wiiliiii  tlic  hiiildiiiji.  'I'liis  often  has  .in  advafJafji'  over  tlic 
pieiiiiiu  .sy.steiii  ''i  I 'lat  :ii!  'he  heat  sii|iiili(d  to  the  air  is  etTc<  vr 
for  iieaiiii;;.  '1  •  i.eliiMl  is  opeciallv  siiifalih^  in  very  "id 
climates  Imt  ca-i  •  im  .  only  where  t;as.  fumes,  or  .■-  'iko  nf 
not  ;:enerateil  ii.s.  !'•  Ah'  si'  ip. 

Ai!  ideal  an  .a.',<'!.ic!ir  i-  a  i  uuiiination  of  the  pien  iiri  and 
return  system-,  .  u  1  '!.'->  di'"  'd  he  useil  u  h<'rever  ])os-     le,      Mv 


lS^....v. 


a  "S"l,l 


'""11"'' 


-^,-*--p-i,. 


^-■JJ 


"V 


t 


t— ^  ~  ■-  -^^ 


1   ..:....t     -!.. 


'±. 


IR- 


Utfiuti  •       .„KMOT  11"  .-.i,cr 


f 


'Zl     -  3 


L 


Iiii.  IJt. — laii  system  in  ntihiay  niacin:, r  ,-ii..p  at  Collinw  ..od,  <  tiiio 

this  inetliod.  tile  (greater  iioriinn  of  the  :;\v  is  returned  to  ;»» 
aiipaialus,  litit  snflicieiit  air  is  idtitinuously  tal<eu  from  w'v  •at 
ihroii^ih  a  fresii  air  couneci  i.  .ii  to  creati-  a  i>leiium  withiii  ht- 
hiuldiii.i;  an.l  pi<  ■,  ■  ,t  the  inward  ieakaj;e  of  cold  ,ir  ahiii.i;  '  ;ic> 
lloor.  Ill  tiiis  niamif  tli(>  iK:?u;al  leakaj:"  is  sufinlied,  not  i.v 
inlhiw  of  col,!  air  tiiiv  ,-iici,  m- es  around  t  ■  doors  and  wiiuhiw 
lint  li\  air  jiassed  tiiiou;;ii  the  apparatus  ,,  .{  jieated  to  an  ctTeci 
ive  (h'frree.  Thi-  cornliination  has  \m-\  '  >nnd  l.y  tests  to  he 
Ji'Kirc-  iT.pn<p|iii' :ii  liiaii  ;iir  rriurned  aloii  Tiie  roper  anioiitit 
of  air  to  h'    iiitro(hi(ed  from  without  is  riuincd  by  si     ir   isr 


w^T:z 


FArrORY  mi.WISG 


233 


a  point  ulicn  l.(  notic,  |..  muanl  lluu  of  ai  ami  i,.|  |i  ,.  ,|,M.rs 
or  vviri'ii/WM  riMst's.  Jf  Uic  pli'iMiiii  is  fairi.  '  licyoii.:  tlu.s  |ii.iiit, 
tlMMo  Hill  l»f  a  Icssiiiic  !..  uruu'ci>-aiy  licati  of  t  iic  ..iil.liior  air. 
Air  should  iil'va>»  l-r  ipi/jccj  :r  the  ri;;lii  i.-^n  »•  of  liumidiiy 
ill  i>r.l(     ti»  pwv.  :it  *M'(ii!.aiil.s  (if    lii'lmiMii.     froi     l,  kin-;  .(,1,1. 

'.it.shin;:  inuccss.     TIn'  hcalinj; 


This  :  ;ir.  Im-.i  Ih-  (June  in  tho  ail 
apparatus  an. I   "ins  ^^liouli  he  pi 


BniiK'v^  lic-i'  ncT   th       i-ntcr  of 
which  !         at       iiH'  'uniri'  ''"i 
yste        of  Air   Liismbu      ■ 
istrili  .III,     thr  .        )||, 

atul  offirc  i  ■.iltiih 
V.    tical    li'    I    s 
\'      ical  <liii       ■'  il 

al-  -it  S  ft.  a!... 

T   I  I.. 


f  the  hiiildin;; 
St  to  that  ciKJ 


lif     -lorl'i 
if'!i>  h1  ail 
lir  is  : 

W.ll' 

•ro 
fir> 


.-■i.i 

.\ 

air  is 


'til, 


lie 

itii 
forci 

UHi  ('(I    (low 


■  ■s  cmiiloycu  ill  fa' 
1    llic    lir   is  adiiii 
s  and  o])('iiii 
'piiiiiiirs  all 
t.      Hy  this  ihi 
ifii  as  i:   (ool.- 

Ollll'    (• 


"d  at  on.-  sid 
i;:'  'i,  '       111 

t'  <'\   iMldc... 

riifi-c   arc   sovoral    systems   of 
air.     A  inc'hod  usi    1  in  j)ul)li(! 
ii's.  is  the 
'  hroiifih 
a  point 
p|>li('d  at 
■thod,  the 
.  and  the 
(I  at  the  floor    ,ii(\      In  soiiM' cases  duels 
.1    e  hei'ii  lined  with  lioll.  w  hrick.  hut     iter  exjieri- 
his  to  he  not  only  unnecessary  l>ut  un.    -irahh>. 
HI       distribution  (|uite  similar  to  this  is  o?     w 
hlo-^vn  into  hrick  ducts  underneath  .r 

verMcal  fralvaiiiz-tl  il    11  risers  are  ;  i 

'  aiv  placed  so  a-  to  hlow  downwai . 
-  le  -ht  of  ahoiit  S  ft.  from  the  (loor. 
idji  hl(.  so  that,  in  ease  too  direct  a  ili 
riion  the  huildinj;-,  the  outlet  can  he  tin 
"cuon  here  the  air  current  will  not  he  oUjciiiojiahle. 
system  is  sometimes  iiKMlified  hy  placinj;  (he  outlet.s  close 
floor  and  hlowiiij;-  downward  directly  alonj;  the  floor. 
This  seeuivs  a  perfect  iliffusioii  of  the  Ik  ated  air  at  the  floor 
lino,  and  avoids  any  draft. 

F.Nc    lent  results  can  he  seci,"   ;  i,y  the  use  of  ovcrh  -ad  piping, 
.vioivd  it  is  not  placed  at  too  jireat  a  distance  from  the  floor 
''    f  I    advantajre  of  tlie  oveih(<ad  system   is  tlie  saviiiu^  in 

1.  u.-;,  since  on  account  of  the  hijih  temperature  and  velocity 
o!  ail  in  the  distrihutinj--  jiipes,  a  jrreat  amount  of  heat  can  he 
transferred  witli  a  very  small  amount  of  material.  The  cost  of 
tlie  uraivanized  iron  distributing  system  of  -ilr  dui's  is  relative'v 
small,  ("ircular  j.ipes  liavc  less  perimeter  for  a  <;iven  area  than 
square  ones  and,  tliorcfore,  reciuirc  less  material  to  make  them. 


'  liese  < 
wall. 

I*     ^. 

si 

in 

()!  .-.-. 

rii.:- 

to   tl 


ere  the 
From 
on"!  the 
■  from 
Itlets 
aised 
Minio 


11 !  • 


2:U     FNGIXKEUIXG  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 

TJicv  slioukl  always  be  galvanized.  The  best  results  are  se- 
cured %yitJi  outlets  from  12  to  18  ft.  above  the  floor  line.  Above 
tluf-  height  it  is  preferable  to  use  drop  pipes  e.\tending  down- 
ward along  the  columns,  where  they  will  not  interfere  with  travel- 
ing cranes.  Such  an  arrangement  of  overhead  piping  is  very 
frequently  employed  in  foundries,  while  in  large  machine  shop.s 
luulerground  ducts  are  nearly  always  preferable.  The  discharge 
oi)enings  should  be  not  less  than  o  in.  in  diameter  and  the 
aggregate  area  of  all  the  openings  should  give  at  least  G  sq.  in. 
for  each  lOOO  cu.  ft.  of  building  contents,  so  that  air  within  the 
l)Uilding  luiiy  be  changed  two  to  three  times  every  hour.  Outlets 
should  be  about  30  ft.  apart,  and  the  total  area  of  all  tlie  openings 
should  be  about  2.1  i)er  cent,  greater  than  the  area  ot  the  main 
•'supply  pipe.  Bends  in  ducts  or  branches  from  them  should 
always  be  made  with  gradual  curves  ratlier  than  sharp  angles 
to  avoid  obstructing  tlic  flow  of  air. 


UCnOMM.  CLCV  ON  A 


r-l _^_  I ■•••"UW.  t«V  ON  A-B 


Fio.   12").— Iloatiiig  plant  in  railway  machine  shop. 

Another  system  which  has  proved  very  satisfactory  is  that  in 
which  a  distributing  air  return  duct  is  employed.  This  ap- 
proaches yc  :y  closely  iti  principle  to  the  plenum'system  used  in 
public  buildings  ami  is  a  rombination  of  both  plenum  and  ex- 
haust systems.  This  may  be  b(  st  described  by  referring  to  the 
heating  plant  at  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  Railroad  shops  at 
Reading  (Fig.  12,-)).  In  this  instance  several  separate  sets  of 
apparatus  have  been  provided,  placed  in  small  fan  houses  built 
at  mtervals  at  either  side  of  the  building.  The  peculiar  feature 
m  this  installation  is  that  iio  distributing  ducts  or  piping  for  the 
lieated  air  are  used.     The  air  is  blown  directly  into  the  building 


FACTORY  HEATING 


235 


at  about  8  or  10  ft.  above  the  floor  throu^ili  an  outlet  branching 
111  tliree  directions.  Tlie  di.stribution  is  affected  entirely  by  the 
return  vent  ducts  which  are  phiced  at  frequent  intervals  alon^  the 
walls.  These  open  into  lar-e  return  air  tunnels  wliich  are  iiro- 
vided  on  either  side  of  tiie  buiklinR,  and  servo  the  additional 
I)urpose  of  afTorduifr  a  convenient  i)lacc  for  locating  steam  and 
water  mains,  and  also  electric  light  and  j)ower  caJjles. 

In  many  instances  an  elaborate  distribution  is  impracticable 
or  undesirable.  In  su.-h  cases  a  centrally  located  dischar-e 
pipe  may  be  used.  Trom  this  point  the  air  is  blown  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  a  circulation  is  produced  l)y  an  exhaust  connection  to 
the  fan  inlet.  In  such  instances  very  effective  heating  has  been 
secured  even  where  it  was  re.iuired  to  blow  the  air  long  distances 


^o^'  1. 


CChtWAL   PLAN  OF  roUNOBT 
IKNKIUI.  KLKTItIr  (^MPANY 


«CT(0»IAt.   ILCVATIOM 


Fto.    12fi.— Foundry    lu-ating    app.iratu.s    with    only    small    amount    of 

distributinR  pipe. 

A  good  example  of  such  a  system  may  bo  found  in  the  foundry 
buil.ling  (iMg.  120)  of  the  General  Klecfic  Companv  at  Schenec- 
tady, whicli  is  one  of  the  hirgest  in  the  world  and  is  heated  in  a 
satisfactory  manner  with  a  few  large  brancli  outlets.  Since  the 
plant  was  installed,  a  large  addition  has  l)een  made.  This  j)or- 
tion  is  heated  by  a  branch  outlet  situate.!  200  ft.  from  the  further 
end  which  shows  how  thorough  distriuution  may  be  secured  bv 
forced  circulation. 

The  works  of  the  Warren  Featherbone  Comoanv  at  Three  O.-iks 
Miciitgan,  gives  a  typical  installation  of  the  fan  system  to  a  group 
of  scattered  buildings,  and  is  remarkable  chiefly  for  the  distance 


-■^ .,«  jr-„n*"iic!»<»v'»raw 


230    K.\(;i\Ei:i{i.\a  of  shops  asd  factories 


to  wliicli  tlio  lioatod  iiir  is  tmnsniittcd  from  the  apparatus  to  the 
various  huildiiifrs.  The  hot  air  pipiiij;  is  "arriod  entirely  out  of 
doors,  and  is  i)rot('ct«'d  hy  a  wood  hoxiiiji  filh'd  with  sawdust. 
The  loss  of  tcinpcratui'o  in  j)asshif!;  throuj;h  this  p'puijr  is  detor- 
mincd  by  test  to  be  only  o  dcfirocs^  which  is  remarkably  snuvll 
considcruif;  tlu;  Icnjith  anil  exposure  of  the  i)ipinfi.  It  has  the 
advantafic  of  a  central  location  of  apparatus  near  tiio  power 
house,  thus  utilizinji  the  exhaust  steam  without  lonj;  and  ex- 
pensive steam  j)ipinjr,  and  minimizing  the  amount  of  attention 
reipiired. 

Advantages  of  the  Fan  System. — It  has  been  shown  that  a 
most  im))ortant  soui'ce  of  economy  with  tiie  fan  system  lies  in 
the  ability  to  seciwe  a  perfect  distribution  and  difftision  of  heat 
anil  by  tlie  production  of  a  plenum,  [jreventins;  the  cold  air  from 
cnteriiif;  the  buiklinfi  and  settlinji  alonjj  the  floors.  Besides  thi.s 
the  temjjerature  is  nuu'h  more  easily  rcfiulated  with  the  fan 
system,  with  s(>parately  controllfMl  heater  sections,  than  vrith 
direct  radiation,  ami  thus  a  jireat  loss  which  fretiuently  occurs, 
due  to  overheat iiijr,  is  prevented. 

Utilization  of  Waste  Heat. — Another  point  in  economy  is  the 
utilization  of  waste  heat.  By  far  the  most  common  form  of 
wast'>  heat  is  from  steam  enjiines  and  other  steam  driven  ma- 
chinery. Tiie  ordimiry  sinijjlo  enjiine  ninninj;  noii-condensinf; 
has  a  water  rate  of  aliout  Hi*  11).  j)er  horse-jjower  and  uses  only 
20  per  cent,  of  the  total  heat  of  steam  in  work  radiation,  lea.  ir.;^ 
a  renuiinder  of  NO  per  cent,  available  for  the  use  in  heatnif;;  apjia- 
ratus,  which  would  otherwise  i>e  wasted.  As  the  mean  effective 
I)ressure  in  the  ordimiry  enjrinc  cylinder  may  be  placed  at  40 
lb.  !)('•■  s(iuare  inch,  an  increase  of  1  11).  per  s([uare  inch  in  back 
pressure  reduces  the  effective  horse-power  of  the  engine  21 
per  cent,  and  correspond  in  jrly  increases  the  cost  of  the  power 
prodvicticn.  In  a  compound  engine  the  effect  of  back  pressure  is 
still  more  noticeable  since  the  tnean  effective  jjressure  referred  to 
tlie  low  ])ri'ssure  cylinder  may  be  placed  at  about  30  lb.  per 
sipiare  inch;  each  ])otuul  of  back  pressure  therefore  reduces  the 
power  of  the  engine  3',  per  cent.  It  is  therefore  eviilently  un 
profitable  to  use  a  system  which  will  greatly  hicrease  the  back 
j)ressure  of  tlu^  engine.  The  ordinary  system  of  ilirect  railiiition 
used  in  shoj)  buildings  usually  camiot  be  operated  successfidly 
without  placing  a  back  pressure  upon  the  engine  which  is  pro- 
hibitory.    On  the  other  hand,  the  fan  .system  heater  is  designated 


FACTORY  HEATING 


2.S7 


to  circulate  steam  at  very  low  pressure   and  can  be  operated 
successfully  with  i-lh.  i)ressurc  on  the  eiijiine. 

Air  Economizers. — An  air  economizer  is  employed  to  preat 
advanta{;e  at  the  plant  of  the  Cheboygan  Paper  t'onipany,  where 
900  boiler  horse-power  of  live  and  exhaust  steam  is  recpiired  in 
heatinj?  the  rolls  and  beaters.  The  building  is  heated  by  the  fan 
system  in  connection  with  an  air  economizer,  and  a  systeni  of 
mechanical  draft.  This  makes  nearly  all  the  exhaust  steam  of 
the  j)lant  available  for  use  in  the  rolls  and  increases  the  economy 
and  heating  capacitj'  of  the  boilers  from  10  to  lo  per  cent.  Tiiis 
.sj'stem  illustrates  another  method  of  removal  of  the  steam 
directly  from  the  machinery  by  the  use  of  hoods  and  disk  fans. 
Sufficient  hot  air  must  be  introduced  into  the  building  to  take  the 
place  of  the  air  removed,  and  to  keep  the  building  warm,  other- 
wise condensation  would  occur.  The  above  system  of  heating 
with  air  economizer  is  in  successful  operation  in  many  places. 

Heating  with  Exhaust  Steam. — Where  condensing  engines  are 
used,  it  is  sometimes  (piestioned  whether  it  is  cheaper  to  run  them 
non-condensing  and  use  exhaust  steam  for  heating,  or  to  operate 
condensing  and  use  live  steam  for  heating  purposes.  The  water 
rate  of  a  compound  Corliss  engine  at  full  load  is  about  20  lb.  per 
horse-power  non-condensing,  and  14  11).  condensing,  so  that  the 
water  rate  is  .SO  percent,  less  when  running  condensing  than  when 
non-condensing.  The  amount  of  heat  available  in  the  exhaust 
steam  when  running  non-condensing  is  about  80  per  cent. 
Hence,  we  .sec  that  the  saving  of  steam  running  condensing  is  only 
6  lb.  i)er  horse-power  while  the  heat  available  in  the  exhaust 
steam  is  10  11).  per  horse-power  and  therefore  a  saving  of  10  lb. 
of  steam  per  horse-power  could  be  made  by  operating  non-con- 
densing and  using  the  steam  in  the  heater  if  all  the  steam  available 
could  be  used.  There  would  also  be  saving  so  long  as  more  than 
38  per  cent,  of  exhaust  steam  was  utilized  in  the  heater,  ^\ith 
less  economical  CTigincs  the  saving  made  b\-  running  non-con- 
densing and  utilizing  the  exhaust  steam  is  greater. 

With  the  steain  turbine,  the  water  rate  increases  very  much 
more  rapidly  with  the  decrea.sc  in  vacuum  (as  shown  by  an  in- 
crease in  the  nutnber  of  inches  registered  on  the  vacuum  gauge) 
than  with  a  ,Ueam  engine.  A  steam  tiu'bine  which,  with  28  in. 
of  vacuum,  has  a  water  rate  of  20  !b.  of  steam  per  kilowatt  hour 
at  full  load  when  running  non-condensiiig  requires  50  lb.  of  steam 
per  kilowatt  hour  at  full  load.     Hence  the  use  of  exhaust  from 


2.\^     FSfilXEFRrSG  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 

tMihiiios  witliout  ii  vacimni  is  oconoiniriil  whon  tlip  hoatinj; 
roiivii-cTiicnts  arc  iiinvc  tliaii  CO  per  (•cut.  of  the  steam  consiiiniition 
of   t!ie  turhiiio  ruiiiiiii.!;  iion-coiKl(>nsiii<:. 

Other  soui-ces  of  waste  lieat  have  lieeii  utilized  to  jrreat  advan- 
tage l)y  means  of  an  air  economizer  in  connection  witli  tiie  fan 
system  of  lieat  in;:,  and  mechanical  draft,  and  the  waste  fjases  from 
tiie  l)oikTs,  hiuninii:  kihis.  jias  engines,  etc.  Tiie  heat  of  these 
gases  is  being  successfully  used  in  many  places  for  hoth  licating 
and  drying  purposes.  By  this  system  it  is  i)ossil)le  to  reduce  the 
temperature  of  tlie  boiler  Hue  gases  from  ooO  to  iMO  degrees,  there- 
by increasing  the  Jieating  capacity  and  economy  of  the  boilers 
ai)proximat'jly  1.")  i)er  cent.  The  saving  affected  by  the  utiliza- 
tion of  tiiese  sources  of  waste  heat  frequently  pays  for  the  cost  of 
installation,  in  one  season's  oper'tion. 

Flexibility  of  Oper.ition.— The  fan  system  possesses  a  great 
advantage  over  iHrect  radiation  systems  hi  its  flexibility  of  opera- 
tion. With  direct  radiation  a  building  heats  up  very  .slowly,  and 
it  is  usually  necessary  to  maintair  a  normal  temperature  all 
night  in  order  to  have  it  suliiciently  warm  in  the  morning.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  fan  system  with  the  proper  amount  of  reserve, 
can  heat  a  building  up  in  a  short  time.  This  allows  the  building 
to  be  cooled  down  during  the  night  to  just  above  frcuzhig-point, 
wav  an  average  temperature  of  '.i't  to  40  degrees. 

First  Cost.  Besitles  these  advantages  in  economy  over  direct 
radiation,  there  is  usually  a  considerable  advantage  in  first  cost 
in  favor  of  the  fan  system.  This  is  due  to  the  compactness  of  the 
.«y>tem,  retparing  fewer  connections  and  shorter  lengths  of  steam 
mains,  but  more  |)articularly  to  the  great  saving  in  amount  of 
radiating  surface  requireil  owing  to  its  great vT  effectiveness  in  the 
fan  svstem.  .\  determining  factor  in  the  rate  of  heat  trans- 
mission of  any  licating  surface  is  the  velocity  of  air  over  that 
.'■urfac'c.  This  can  be  shown  l>y  curves  or  chart,  exliibiting  the 
relation  between  air  velocities  and  heat  transmission.  In 
direct  radiation,  the  heat  is  transmitted  by  convection  currents 
iiiid  radiation  only,  wiiile  witli  tiie  fan  system  an  air  v(>locity  over 
the  coils  of  1200  to  1  "lOO  ft.  per  minute  is  usual;  the  former  trans- 
mits only  from  J  to  J.O  U.T.l'.  per  squar(>  foot  i)er  hour  per 
degree  ditTereiic(>  in  temperature,  wliile  the  fan  system  heater, 
transmit-  front  lis  '■■■'  V-^A  IVT.IT.  per  scn.iare  foot  }>or  hour, 
per  degree  difference  in  temiieratiire,  or  more  than  five  times 
as  much  as  direct  radiation.     Hence  a  correspondingly  smaller 


FACTOR Y  HEATIXG 


239 


amount  of  nuliafinjr  surface  may  l)c  used,  wliicli  more  than  off- 
pets  tlie  additional  cost  of  fan,  en<;ine  and  liot-air  piping. 

The  cliief  points  of  superiority  of  tlie  fan  system  may  bo 
summarized  as  follows: 

1.  (!ood   ventilation   re-iardless  of  exterior  conditions. 

2.  Uniform  and  proper  distribution  of  heat. 

3.  High  efficiency  of  heatinj;  surface, 

4.  (ireatest  economy  in  operation. 

5.  Utilization  of  exhaust  steam. 

6.  Prevention  of  cold  drafts  from  without  by  jiroduction  of  a 
plenum. 

7.  Independent  regulation  of  heating  and  ventilating  effects. 

8.  Great  flexibility  in  operation  to  suit  varying  conditions. 

9.  Ease  of  control  which  prevents  overheating. 

10.  Compactness  with  economy  of  space  and  low  cost  of  steam 
connections. 

11.  Good  drainage,   with  few  repairs. 

12.  Low  cost  of  installation. 

13.  Apparatvis  capable  of  removal  to  another  plant  if  required. 

The  Vacuum  System. — The  evident  and  growing  need  of  a  heat- 
ing system  Avhich  will  utilize  the  exhaust  from  condensing  en- 
gines and  steam  turbines  under  a  considerable  vacuum  has  led  to 
the  introduction  of  the  vacuum  fan  system  of  heating.  This 
system  competes  in  no  way  with  others,  i)ut  simiilifies  the  method 
of  ai)i)lication  and  enables  vacuum  to  be  secured,  otherwise 
impossii)le.  It  insures  at  all  times  a  perfect  circulation  of  the 
steam  in  the  heater  coils  and  maximum  economy  when  ojierating 
with  the  exhaust  from  engines  or  turbines  operating  with  high 
vacuum.  The  system  is  particularly  adapted  to  the  successful 
operation  of  several  heaters  wiilcly  separated  and  well  removed 
from  the  central  source  of  steam. 

Roundhouse  Installation.— The  application  of  the  fun  system 
is  advantageous  in  the  heating  and  ventilating  of  locomotive 
roundiiouses.  These  are  especially  difficult  to  heat  on  account 
of  the  large  volume  of  warm  air  carrieil  off  through  the  open 
smoke  jacks  which  act  as  ventilators.  A  great  deal  of  heat  ia 
absorbed,  too,  in  the  melting  of  the  snow  and  ice  on  the  locomo- 
tives an-i  in  the  evaporation  of  the  moisture  thus  proiluced. 
Ample  ventilation  is  recjuired  to  remove  the  smoke  and  steam 
produced  by  the  engine  and  this  necessarily  consumes  much  heat. 
The  air  is  drawn  directly  from  out  of  doors  and  after  passing 


2.0    i-M;iM^i:iii^''  OF  snors  asi>  i-ArroiUKS 

,hrm...h  tl.o  n.ils  of  th.  Iu.U.m-.  is  aistril.u..'.l  l.y  a  syston,  ..f  un- 
.     1      ciof^    ntin.lv.     Mu.r  f.v.iuontly,  however,  outlets 

:;;;:re;n:;i;;"::ope.:at.ni...es.  Hy.,.o^..,hei..ta.r 

,  ,.„.,est  P;-  ;  ;  -   •  ;^     ,,,^.  aist.iht.tion  of  tl.o  l.eat  at  the 

;•:;:;:  .ru:;i;en-;u.aea  a,.ape.-...i,s  it  t.,  be  utn^ 

f     1.S    .vte..t  l.ef...v  the  air  passes  rut   of  the  l....hl...«       As 

:         :     l^nt  e..ti.ely  f.-o..i  .u.taoo.s,  the  ..eeess.uy  ve..t.ia  u.a 

.    .ai   ti.i.es  a.ia  n  l.h>..U...  is  l..-o<l.ieea  w.thi...  wh.eh 

;:,:r;'::..;;;..;;"a;r:i;e^.ia  i.afts  oeeasio..ea  ,.y  the  f.-e.,.e..t 

'••'Z;:c:;i:n";o'T:.tile  MiUs.-it.   textiU-   ...tils  the,,  is  the 

..l^hS  pn...le...  of  seetni,.,  p.-opof  htt,.na.ty  '"^"thet-  ..  h 

V  ,     htio..      Operators  i.t  textile  ...ills  have  lo,.,  app.-ee.ate.l  the 

,'     .    :  of     orree,   h.....l.lity  a,.a  te.,.pe.-atu.-e  eo,.a.t.o,.s    . 

Z  in.  and  ueavi..,  proeesses.      Whi-e  these  re,,t.......e.U 

,.o    well    u..ae.-stooa,    no    e,.ti.ely    sat.s  a.^tory    or    .u  e.,.    c 
utl.o      has   l.e.v,ofo.e   l.ee.x   i.n.-.uh.eea   for   see,..-....   the   ae^ 

la  em    t       Tl.es,.  .•o..aitio,.s  .hieh   have  s..eh  an   tn.por  a.tt 

,   "      ;n  the  textile  pr  .esses  a.v:  First,  the  l.u,.na.ty  whteh 

;    tur.  V   ....ite  ins..{lieie,.t    for  the   best   resnlts   aurinj;   the 

nu-t  i^^    he  vear   espeeiallv  i..  the  eohl  weather  of  w...ter 

!;;;:;';    ,  l^  ™ti.e.'of  st.,„,..er.    8eeo..a,  the  ten.perat..ro 

"  ouia  he  ;..ai..tainea  at  fo...  70  to  75°,  recp.n-es  spe.-  a^ 

,i,..  h.  winter  a..a  eooU...  if  possible  nt  «t.n..ner  wh  ..  the 

;^     :,:ia..  te..„.e.-att.re  at.....e..,ea_hy  the  weav..  a..a  spm- 

:,.  n.aehh.erv  he..o...c.s  a  K'vat  aetri...e,.t       Ihn-a.  ^.■.'tIl  t  o, h 
Xh    .ho.,,l.'no,   so  i,..po,-ta,.t  as  the  v""-.'-";'"-^^''^'      ' 

M.r.  tiveh- ae...anaea  fro.n  a  hutnanitar.a..  po...t  of  v.ew  ^^he.e 
:?   :!  .;....en  a..a  ehihlren  are  ;eMuin.a   c.>  w..^^^^ 

„,,,,iv;.lv  sn.all  spaee.     In  oinler  that   .he  hesl  .e^ults  .  .a>   h._ 
':  ;      a  h.  a  eottl  .nill.  .he  air  .....st   .o,,.a.n  a  per..e..ta,e  o. 

,  s  .  e  whieh  -a.,  n.os,  easily  he  proviaed  hy  blown.,  a.r  ...to 
;tXp'  ..har.ea  wit  h  the  proper  ..notn.t.  A  dry  at n.osphe.-e 
i'.",l,'.trine..tal  to  the  n.a..ufaetiirc  of  cotto..  };uou.-,  lu  tiuu  i. 
l:^T^^Lx  o.  ..icctucity  wLicl,  make.  ,1»  iibcs  Bcparate, 


FACTOJx'Y  //A. 1 77 AG' 


241 


l)ut  wluMi  a  ccrtiiiii  ainniiiit  of  liuiuidity  exists,  tlu'  fihor  liccomcrt 
iiinrc  adlu'sivc  and  pliant,  and  consetiuently  the  yarn  becomes 
Hiiioother,  stronger  and  softer. 

The  demand  for  a  betterment  of  these  eondilions  has  h-d  to 
recent  improvements  in  ventilathiK  and  heating  textile  mills, 
one  of  the  verj'  latest  improvements  in  this  direction  is  a  system 
for   humidifyinfr,    ventilating   and   heating.     The   apparato 
cr)mposed   of   five  essential   elements,  the  temp(>ri!ig  coils, 
luimidilier,  the  heater,  fan,  and  the  system  of  air  ducts. 

The  air  is  first  drawn  through  a  series  of  tempering  coils  con- 
trolled by  the  i)roi)er  temi)eratiire  for  humidifying:  thence,  it  is 
drawn  by  the  fan  through  the  humidiher  and  forced  through 
heater  coils  and  by-pass  where  sufficient  heat  is  imjiarted  to  it  to 
maintain  the  desired  temperatures  in  a  room.  By  this  arrange- 
ment the  control  of  humidity  is  absolute  and  may  be  varieil  at 
will  between  any  desired  limits.  The  mechanism  is  exceedingly 
simple  and  relatively  inexpensive.  The  temperature  in  the  room 
is  under  absolute  control  without  affecting  the  volume  of  ven- 
tilation. A  uniformity  of  tem])erature  and  humidity  is  main- 
tained. When  the  air  is  taken  from  outdoors  it  is  washed  and 
l)urified  as  well  as  humidified.  In  this  ^vay  fresh  air  is  constantly 
sui)])lied,  enal)ling  the  operatives  to  work  in  a  pure  iiealthful 
atiiiosphere  luuler  all  conditions  of  weather. 

Fan  System  in  Paper  Mills.— In  cold  weather  great  trouble  is 
usually  experienced  in  pajx'r  mills  from  tiie  condensation  pro- 
duced from  the  moisture  laden  air  coming  in  contact  with  the 
cold  roof  and  walls.  This  condensation  not  oidy  drops  back  on 
the  dry  i)aj)cr  producing  blisters,  and  thus  injuring  the  product, 
but  causes  tlic  roof  boards  and  timbers  to  rot  out  cpiickly.  The 
most  practical  and  satisfactory  method  yet  devised  is  to  blow 
liot  air  into  the  building  just  over  the  machines.  Heated  air  is 
thrown  against  the  roof  and  walls  by  a  set  of  outlets,  while 
another  set  of  outlets  is  discharging  air  against  the  machines. 
The  first  set  of  outlets  keeps  the  roof  warm  while  the  air  from 
the  second  set  diffuses  the  steam  remaining  away  from  the 
machines  and  dissijiates  it.  Air  supplied  is  always  drawn  from 
without,  and  an  exit  for  the  moisture  laden  air  is  provided  by 
louvres  or  ventilators  in  the  roof.  This  insures  a  rapid  absorp- 
tion and  removal  of  the  atmosphere. 

Fan  System  in  Paint  Shops. — lu  paint  shop.-,  ii  is  desirable  to 
dry  paint  rapidly  and  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  drafts  which  agitate 
la 


212    i:.\(;iM-:t:iii.\(-!  of  shops  and  factoiues 


\  ■  / 


?K 


\ 


\  !■•:";.[ 


a. 


\    I 


^ , 


\    _\_- 


T 


/ 


;•{ 


I 


1 


CJ  OJ 


iK!.    127.— Il.atin./   plunt   for  paint   shop  at   Scdalia,  Mo.     ConipleU     :r 
distribution  to  avoid  drafts. 


■SiSPBff 


IH^^HK 


FACTORY  HEATING 


243 


(lii.st  and  lilow  it  almut  the  building.  Willi  tho  fan  system  the 
f(>iin(>r  results  are  obtained  by  the  introduction  of  dry  air  from 
without,  and  the  latt.-r  is  avoided  l)y  the  use  of  unusually  low 
air  velocities  and  special  arrangement  of  ducts.  In  the  fan 
system  of  paint  shop  heating,  a  combined  plenum  and  exhaust 
system  is  frequently  employed  with  most  gratifying  results. 
The  air  may  be  discharged  through  an  overhead  system  at  low 
velocities.  A  downward  circulation  is  produced  and  all  cold  or 
moist  air  is  removed  at  the  floor  line  by  exhausting  a  portion  of 
the  air  through  underground  ducts  opening  into  the  pit  under  the 
cars.  Tliis  system  avoids  all  disturbing  air  currents  and  affords 
a  i)erfect  distribution  of  the  heated  air.  In  locations  where  a 
great  ileal  of  smoke  and  dust  ])revails,  a  system  of  air  purifying 
may  be  used  to  advantage.  The  rapidity  of  drying  secured  by 
the  fan  system  far  exceeds  that  obtained  by  any  other  method, 
owi..ij.  to  the  friMitient  renewal  of  the  air  and  its  consequent 
greater  drying  effect  (Fig.  1137). 

Steam  Heating. — Heating  l)y  direct  radiation  is  usually  slow  on 
account  of  the  long  lin(>s  of  pipes,  unless  a  vacuum  circulation  is 
installed,  and  steam  pipes  are  likely  to  leak  and  fill  with  conden- 
sation. A  common  rule,  known  us  "  the  222  formuhe"  for  finding 
the  amount  of  radial  ion  surface,  is  to  supply  1  s((.  ft.  of  radiation 
fov  every  2  sq.  ft.  of  window,  20  sq.  ft.  of  exterior  wall,  and  200 
cu.  ft.  of  building  contents.  The  sum  of  these  three  quotients 
will  l>e  the  total  r('(|uired  area  of  radiation  surface. 

Modern  multi-story  sIiojjh  with  70  to  80  per  cent,  of  their  walla 
composed  of  glass,  should  have  1  sq.  ft.  of  radiation  for  every 
130  to  1 '>0  cu.  ft.  of  volume.  In  Nortliern  latitudes  with  mini- 
mum temperatures  of  10  to  20  degrees  b(>low  zero,  1  sq.  ft.  of 
radiation  may  be  needed  for  every  75  to  100  cu.  ft.  The  amount 
provided  in  buildings  of  the  old  style,  with  less  window  area, 
where  1  ft.  of  radiation  was  enough  for  200  to  220  cu.  ft.  of 
building,  is  f|uite  insufficient  in  shops  of  the  modem  type. 

Allot  lier  approximate  J'ule  for  <letermining  the  required  number 
of  lineal  feet  of  1-in.  pipiny:,  f.ir  heating  by  live  or  exhaust  steam, 
when  air  is  taken  from  without,  is  to  divide  the  cubic  contents 
of  the  building  !)y  l.")0,  and  the  resulting  number  is  the  number 
of  lineal  feet  re((uired.  Again,  dividing  the  number  of  lineal  feet 
of  1-in.  piping  just  found,  by  70  gives  the  approximate  required 
In  use-power    of    (lie    boii'T. 

In  one-story  metal  working  .shops  with  galleries  and  central 


2\\    i:.\<!Im:i:i{1.\(i  of  suors  asp  f.utohiks 

truvc'liiiK  cnmo,  wlierc  hoatinp  pipes  cannot  cross  the  central  open 
(.pace  uci  apietl  l.y  tl.e  cranes  wl.en  moving,  ducts  must  either  l.e 
phiced  under  tlie  lloors  with  risers  at  the  walls,  or  tliere  must  be 
a  double  line  of  metal  ducts  at  each  side,  worked  by  two 
M-paratc  blowers.  In  multi-story  buildings,  the  blowers  and 
fans  arc  usually  placed  in  the  basement,  with  one  or  more  risers 
or  stand  pipes  rising  to  the  upper  floors,  from  which  pipes 
branch  out  as  in  one-story  shops.  In  new  buildings  these  flues 
can  be  in  the  outer  walls,  this  arrangment  being  <iuite  suitable 
for  such  shops  as  textile  mills. 

The  cost  of  steam  heat  installation  is  usually  Sli  to  »4  per  1000 
cu.  ft.,  of  building,  or  00  to  80  cents  per  sciuare  foot  of  radiation 

surface.  . 

Heating  by  Floor  Radiation.— .\  system  of  heating  by  radiation 
from  the  floors  which  are  artificially  warmed,  was  iinroduced  a 
few  years  ago  in  a  shop  for  the  Morse  Chain  Company  at  Ithaca, 
N  Y.     In  this  case,  hot  air  was  admitted  directly  to  the  building 
only  in  extremely  cold  weather,  but  at  all  other  times  the  shop 
was  warmed  wholly  by  heat  radiation  from  the  floor.     Steam 
])ipes  1-in.  in  diameter  were  laid  crosswise  of  the  building  inside 
of  l-in.  pii>es  buried  in  the  concrete  floors,  tlie  larger  pipe  being 
covered  with  i  in.  of  wearing  surface.     A  large  metal  working 
Hhop  ill  Cleveland,  plans  for  which  were  made  partly  by  the  writer, 
is  heated  in  a  somewhat  similar  manner.     The  building  is  100 
ft    long,  and  •2\r>  ft.  wide,  and  heaters  are  placed  in  four  pits 
below  The  floor  at  one  side  of  the  shop.     Hot  air  is  conveyed 
tiiroiigh  four  main  transverse  concrete  ducts  below  the  floor,  to 
oixMiings  or  registers  L>2  in.  in  diameter,  in  the  base  of  the  columns. 
]{y  using  four  separate  heaters,   the  probability  of  a  general 
breakilown   is  small,  for  if  one  should  be  out  of  repair,  there 
would  still  be  three  in  operation.     Branches  from  the  main  ducts 
are  2 1-in.  tile  sewer  pipes.     The  floor  of  the  shop  is  concrete 
and  granolithic — a  type  which  is  often  objectionable  on  account 
of   its  transmitting  heat  rapidly  from   the  body  and  causing 
fatigue— but  in  this  case  with  heat  ducts  below  the  floor  to  warm 
it,  this  objection  is  removed. 


FACTORY  UEATISG 


245 


tablf;  xxi.-weiuht  i-kk  i.isial  foot  ok  galvanized  pipes,  u.  a. 

STANDAUI)  tiAlKiE 
W»4||hl<i  in  Pounih  Avi>ir<iupuu  per  Ruiiiiini  Foot 

Number  of  gaiiK<^ 


Iliair.otef 
of  yiiyic 


A 
5 

6 

«■ 
/ 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 


S<iunrc  feet 

|H>r  runniiiK 

foot 


1  13 
1.39 
l.fi5 

1  91 

2  18 
2.44 

2  70 
2.06 
3.22 
3.48 

3  74 
4.01 
4.27 


4 .  53 

4.87 
5  14 
5  10 
.")  :.<> 
5.92 
0  IH 
0.45 
6.71 


6.97 
7.33 

7  .50 
7.75 
8.10 

8  36 
8.62 
8.88 
9.15 

9  41 
9  67 
9  03 

10.10 
10.46 
10.72 


26 


.13 

.39 

.65 

.91 

2.18 

2.44 

2,70 

2.96 

3.22 

3.48 


3 

4. 

4 

4. 

4. 

5-. 

5. 

5. 

5. 


74 

.01 
27 

.53 

.87 
14 

.40 
59 

.92 
6.1H 
6.45 
6.71 
6.'.i7 
7.33 
7.50 
7.75 
8.  10 
8  36 
8  nj 
8.88 
9.15 
9.41 
9.67 
9.93 
10.19 
10.46 
10  72 


24 


1  47 
1.80 
14 
,48 
.K\ 
17 
51 
3.85 
4,18 
4 .  52 
4,80 
5,21 
5.55 
5.85 
6  33 
6,68 
7.02 
7.26 
7.7(1 
8.04 
8.38 
8.72 
0,05 
9.40 
9,7.-. 
10. "7 


10 

54 

10 

87 

11 

20 

11 

56 

11 

<H> 

12 

23 

K! 

57 

12 

91 

13 

25 

13 

60 

13 

95 

22 


20 


1  69 

1.97 

2.08 

2.43 

2.47 

2.89 

2.86 

3  34 

3  27 

3.81 

3 .  66 

4  27 

4.05 

4.72 

4  44 

5.18 

4 .  s:\ 

5.03 

5  22 

6.09 

5,61 

6.54 

6,01 

7.01 

6,40 

7.47 

6 , 7'» 

7.92 

7.30 

8.51 

7  71 

9  00 

8,10 

9  4.'^ 

8,39 

9.7S 

8,8S 

10.35 

9.27 

10.81 

9  67 

1 1 .  30 

10,(«) 

11.74 

10,45 

12,20 

10,85 

12  67 

11,27 

13,13 

11.63 

13,58 

12  17 

14,20 

12  .-)4 

14  f.3 

12  03 

15  10 

13.34 

15  56 

13.73 

16,(K) 

14  10 

16,48 

14.r)0 

16  91 

14.90 

17  40 

15.29 

17  SI 

15  60 

18  31 

16.08 

18.76 

18 


16 


2  56 

3,10 

3,19 

3,82 

3.79 

4,54 

4,39 

5,25 

5,01 

6,00 

5,61 

6  71 

6,21 

7,42 

6,80 

8  14 

7,40 

8,85 

8.00 

9.57 

8,60 

10  28 

9,22 

10,86 

9,82 

11  74 

10.42 

12  45 

11.18 

13,36 

1 1 ,  80 

14  11 

12,42 

14,85 

12,8.-> 

1 5 ,  36 

13.61) 

16.25 

14,40 

17  00 

14  84 

17,71 

i  1,->,41 

18,41 

16,00 

19.15 

16,62 

19,87 

17,26 

20,60 

17,81 

21.30 

18,62 

22,25 

19,20 

23,00 

19  84 

23 ,  70 

20  42 

24 ,  40 

21,08 

25  18 

21  65 

25,85 

22  22 

J ;  60 

22 ,  84 

27,30 

23.40 

28  00 

24.02 

28,70 

24,68 

29.50 

wm^ 


wm 


L'Jti    i:.\<.i\Khi!i.\(i  Of-'  S/IOl'S  ASh  hA<"r<fUii:s 
Tvutr  \xi    wi;i.iiiT  nil  mm  \.    foot  of  ••.u.\.\m/.i  i>  ni'is.  us. 

Wiiurtil' 111  l'.>ini|.   Willi, lu|ii>i»  |n'r  KiliHiiiiK  I  mil 

NiiiiilMr  of  caiiKi' 


Si|ii:iri'  fi'i't 
i)iatn..t..r      ^^^.^  ^,,_^_,i„^ 

'"'  •"'"'  foot  J,i 


M 


•_'() 


IS 


D) 


41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

SO 

ftl 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57 

58 

59 

60 

62 

64 

66 

68 

70 

72 

7J 

70 

78 

80 

82 

84 

86 


IIcatinR  and  vciitilutiiig 

Duets  to  IS  ill.  ilianictor,  20  R.il. 
Ducts  10  to  29  in.  (liaiiiclcr,  24  gnl 
Ducts  30  to  39  in.  (liamctor,  22  Kal. 
Duct.s  W  to  49  in.  diaiuctor,  2(l  gal 
Ducts  50  to  70  in.  diairK'tcr,  IS  gal 
Above  70  in.  diameter,  10  gul. 


1(1  9S          1 

10. it^ 

1  1   27 

10    17 

10  20 

25  25 

.to,  20 

1121 

1 1  J 

11    00 

If.  SO 

I'.i  01 

25 .  ,S0 

HO.IM) 

1 1    59 

11    5<l 

15,  or. 

17.3S 

20.30 

20.00 

31   SO 

11    S5 

1 1    s5 

15    10 

17  7S 

20.71 

27  25 

32 .  00 

12   U 

12   11 

15.75 

IS  17 

21   20 

27.',M» 

33.30 

12  :17 

12  37 

10   10 

IS  55 

21   r.2 

2S   13 

3I,(K) 

12  03 

12  <i3 

10.  10 

IS  95 

J.'   10 

29.00 

3  1   70 

12  9(» 

12  '.K> 

10. 7S 

19.35 

22 .  00 

29  70 

35, Vl 

13.15 

13.15 

17.10 

19  72 

23  («l 

30  25 

Mi .  20 

13   a 

13.  II 

17.45 

20   12 

23 .  ,50 

30. '.Mt 

30.  !M) 

13  00 

13  00 

17  75 

20   19 

23.90 

31.40 

37 .  .50 

13  "1 

13  91 

IS   12 

20.97 

2  1  40 

32.  (Ht 

3S..30 

1  1    Ji) 

11  20 

IS  40 

21.30 

21   (M) 

32 .  tiO 

39.  (H) 

1  t    Iti 

1 1   40 

IS  so 

21  t..; 

25  30 

33.20 

39.70 

11   SI 

14. SI 

1'      -'S 

22  22 

25 . 9 1 

31.10 

40. SO 

15  07 

15.07 

19   iiO 

22  01 

20.40 

31.05 

41   40 

15.:!3 

15  33 

19   iC. 

23  (M) 

20 .  ,S0 

35.21 

42   10 

15  5H 

1.-,   -s 

20.30 

23  37 

27.30 

35.  S! 

4  2.  SO 

15.83 

15  s 

20  55 

23 . 7  1 

27.70 

30.  10 

13  .50 

10.12 

10    12 

20  95 

24.1s 

2S.20 

37. (H) 

44  30 

10  05 

10  05 

2 1   t>5 

24 .  97 

29.  10 

3S.20 

45  70 

17.lt) 

17,1'i 

22.30 

25.74 

30  (H) 

39.50 

47.20 

17  "OO 

17  tiO 

22  97 

20  49 

3(>  (H) 

40.00 

4S..50 

IH  21 

IS.  21 

23 .  05 

27.31 

31    ,S3 

41   SO 

50.  (H) 

1  s  75 

IS.  75 

21  40 

2S   1 2 

32.  SO 

43.10 

51. 50 

19  25 

19  25 

25  (12 

20  92 

33 .  70 

44. 30 

.53.00 

1'.».79 

19   79 

25  7(t 

1  29. OS 

3l.ti5 
35.ti2 
35 .  75 

45  .50 
4.1   77 
10.90 

54 .  50 
.54 .  73 
.55.13 

:io.o5  i  is.io 

.50.63 

' 

;<7   57      49  40 

,58  ()0 

:i.s  50  i  .50.00 

i   .59  40 

i 

39.39 

51.77 

00.77 

lor  |ilaniiin-niill  work 

Hucts  1o  S  in.  diainctor,  24  Rill. 
Dints  9  fo  1  i  in.  diameter,  22  gal. 
Ducts  15  to  20  in.  diameter,  20  gal. 
Ducts  21  to  -iO  in.  diameter,  IS  gal. 


■pn 


F.U  TOfiY  UK.UISa 
T.vm.K  XXII    <  \1U(^  im;  f.\i'A<  i  n  <'F  vivv.h 


24 : 


Ciil...'  feet 

of  uir  per 

iiiiiiiile 


Ve'Kicilii'S 


—', \  \—    ■  I  ,  !  !  ! 

r><K)    (MK)    SIM)    KMKI  l-'IMi  i:)<HI  IMHI'.MMMt  J.VKKJIKHCS.VMI      i"0 


I 


■J(Mt 

0 

s 

1 

t 

ti 

0 

(i 

r, 

0 

r. 

i\ 

"'> 

4(HI     i:{   11 

W 

•) 

,s 

,s 

" 

1 

(> 

li 

li 

li 

(1(X(    i  \'>  ,    U 

'- 

11 

10  ' 

<• 

^ 

s 

1 

t 

I'l 

11 

S(K»     1  IS  1  !-i 

1 1  ! 

13 

u 

lit 

•  1 

(} 

.H 

«  1 

i 

( 

MKM)    '  ai 

IS 

It) 

1  1 

1:1 

IJ 

1(1 

10 

ft 

s 

H  : 

7 

l/.MK)    !  21 

20 

17 

'•'' 

It 

l.i 

11 

11 

10 

ft 

9  ' 

8 

1 ,  KM)      I'-i 

21  ' 

IH 

10  ! 

1.-) 

11 

12 

12 

11 

10 

ft 

9 

It  KM)   1  -':>  •-'.■» 

20 

IN 

10 

1". 

13 

i:; 

11 

It 

10 

9 

l.HIM) 

20  i  21 

21 

19 

17 

l.-) 

11 

1:'. 

12 

11 

10 

10 

•i,(MM) 

2S   2."> 

22  i 

20 

IS 

10 

l.-) 

1 1 

13 

IJ 

11 

10 

2.'-'(M) 

29   27 

23 

21 

19 

17 

1.". 

1.-. 

1  ! 

12 

11 

11 

2,4IM)      30   2S 

24 

21 

21  > 

IN 

10 

I'l 

11 

i^i 

12 

11 

2,ti(M)    i  :U  ^  29 

2') 

22 

2(1 

IN 

17 

10 

1'. 

13 

12 

11 

2.,s(Mi   :  ;w  30 

26  j 

23 

21 

19 

IS 

10 

1:. 

14 

13 

12 

3,(MM)      34   31 

27 

24 

22 

2(1 

IS 

17 

l.'> 

14 

13 

12 

3,2(M)      3 1   32 

2S 

2.'> 

23 

20 

19 

l.s 

1.') 

15 

13 

13 

3,4(M)      3(i   33 
3,tHK)      37   34 

2S 
29 

2.') 
20 

23 
21 

21 
21 

19 

20 

IS 
19 

10; 
10 

1') 
1.". 

14 
14 

13 

13 

3,K(M)      3S   3.'. 

:!() 

27 

2:1 

•  >■> 

21 

19 

1" 

10  j 

1.-. 

14 

4.(MM)      30   3.-. 

31 

■^ 

2.'. 

22 

21 

20 

IH 

10 

l.-> 

14 

4.2(H)      10   3f. 

32 

:■ 

;• 

23 

21 

20 

IS 

10 

t.-> 

14 

4,4(H)      41   37 

3:' 

:'■■! 

;:; 

•>•> 

21 

l.s 

17 

10 

i.") 

4,t)<H)     :  I-'   3H 

33 

■;• 

j" 

M 

•  >■» 

21 

19 

17  i 

10 

4,K(M) 

12   3!l 

34 

*  '  ■ 

•.'n 

■.  ) 

''2 

21 

10 

IH  ' 

l)i 

■  'i 

5,(MM) 

43   4(1 

34 

■y% 

''» 

23 

■  )■» 

20 

IS 

r 

~  '- 

r>,2r" 

44   40 

3."> 

3.  : 

■.'.\', 

2.") 

24 

*'2 

20 

I'- 

iV 

tf_ 

5,4(M) 

3:) 

32 

29 

20 

24 

2i 

21 

ll 

'  • 

i'> 

5,t)(M) 

" ' '  T  ' 

:«> 

33 

.30 

27 

24 

23 

21 

19 

l^ 

17 

r),s(M)    — i.. 

37 

33  ; 

30 

27 

2.") 

24 

21 

19 

IS 

17 

f,  (MM)     .... 

3H 

34  i 

31 

2S 

2.'> 

24 

21 

20 

18 

17 

6.2(M)    1 

3H 

.34 

31 

2H 

2.') 

24 

21 

20 

18 

17 

6,1f)0 

39 

3.5 

32 

2.S 

20 

2.') 

'*2 

20 

19 

IS 

n.(MM) 

39 

30 

32 

2(1 

20 

2.'> 

22 

i  -* 

19 

18 

■i.SfM) 

i 

40 
40 

:  41 

30 
3('> 
37 

33 
33 
34 

29 
30 
30 

27 
27 

,  2.S 

2.") 
2»> 
2() 

23 

21 
21 
•-'1 

19 
1ft 
20 

18 

7,00*) 

'  ■ ' '  1  " 

18 

7,200 

.  1 . 

19 

7.400 

'  41 

37 

34 

30 

2K 

27 

24 

21 

20 

19 

7,0(K) 

42 

38 

34 

31 

28 

27 

24 

22 

20 

19 

i3\   .U^»x 


W 


218      KSaiMJEULW}  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 

TABIJ:  XXII— CAUKYIXi:  capacity  ok  VlVKA—CanlinurJ 


Cill)ic  feet 

of  iiir  per 

miiiuto 


Velocities 


Sdll    IIHM)  12(K)  \MH)  1S(MI  2(MM»i2ri<«l  :«MK)  3:)0()  4(M;0 


7.S(M)  »:?  3;  -M',  '  -M  2<)  '  27 

s.cxK)  4:t  :«'.»  :«■)  :<2  2'.t  2h 

X,2(H)        I :{'.•  :  M\  :{2  21»  2.S 

s'4(H»       I Ill  '■»>  :«:t  :{()  2h 

KiKK)  10  :i7  :i:{  :»)  2!» 

,s,s(Ki  II  :i"  :i::  :«>  2<i 

«),(MM)  11  :i><  :!i  :«l  •-"•' 

«),2(Mi 11  :!x  :ii  :<l  :"• 

o,4(Mi  12  :is  :u  :u  :«) 

o!(i(M)  I-'  :»•  :<•'>  :*'-'  -•' 

o,s()<)  i:<  •(•■»  :<!>  :i-'  ;*<• 

jo!(HM»  1:5  10  M  :<-'  ;{i 

.i,{)0(t  i:.  11  ••!:  :«  31 

12,(HM)  4T  i:t  :«»  3.")  34 

iiUMM)  I'l  4'>     111  37  ar. 

1  t.ooo .  .'"l  17      12  3S  ;}»•, 

l.-,,(MM)  .Vf  IS       |:i  40  US 

l(),(too .■)■>  .V)     t:>  41  .!'.> 

i;,()(M)  .">(i  -''1      Hi      12  40 

is.ooo  .vs  .">:;      17      i:<  41 

1<.1,(K)()  no  •">!        I'.»        !l        12 

•_>(»,(MIO  •>!  ■'><>       "'O       Hi  4:{ 

21, (MX)  r>3  .'.7  r,l  47       II 

22.0(M(  (il  .^s  ."12  4.S  4."> 

2:{.(MI()  .  .  .  Ii'>  (io  .">:(  4".t       Hi 

21. (KK)  <i7  111  .'i.'i  .")0       ;7 

2."i,(MM>  tin  Ii2       .')•(  .")!        IS 

2»(,ooo  70  r.:i     .")7  .'>2     4!) 

27, (MM)  71  <>•')      .'i.S      ■>:(      .')<) 

2,S.(MM(  .  .         72  (itl        .')'.)  .'ll        .">1 

2'.»,(MM)  7:i  r.7      (it)      ').")      52 

IjO.tMM)  7.">  lis       (11  ■")•>       •">.! 

;{1.(MM)  7(i  (i!)       I>2  .')7       .')4 

:j2.(mm) 77     70     (i:i  .')7     ."i.'> 

;{;<,(MH)  7s      72      (>4  ."vS      .">() 

lil.tMKi  7!)      7:{      ().')  ."lit  I  .')(> 

;{."), (Mmi  si      74      titi  ()0      ."17 

3(),(MM)  S-'       7.')       ti7  (il        .")S 


24 

2."> 
2.-) 
2.j 
2.") 
2ti 
2(1 
20 


27 

2S 
20 

;«) 

31 
33 
34 
3.") 
3() 
37 
3S 
3<t 
40 
41 
12 
42 
43 
44 
4.') 
4t) 
47 
47 
4.S 
4!) 
.'.0 
.")() 
.-.1 
■)2 


23 

23 

23 

21 

24 

24 

21 

2.') 

25 

25 

•2(i 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

.33 

3t 

34 

35 

3(1 

37 

3S 

39 

40 

40 

41 

42 

42 

43 

44 

45 

45 

4(i 

47 

47 


21 
21 
21 
21 
21 


23 
23 
23 
24 
25 
27 
28 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
34 
35 
311 
37 
3S 
3S 
3!) 
.39 
40 
41 
41 
42 
43 
13 
41 


19 

20 
20 
20 
20 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
2t> 
27 
28 
28 
29 
30 
31 
31 
32 
33 
34 
34 
35 
3() 
3(1 
37 
38 
38 
39 
i  39 
I  40 
40 
41 


FACTORY  m:  ATI  Ml  249 

TABLE  XXH.     CAUHYIXti  CArAClTY  OF  ril'I.S— CorUinuai 


Cubic  feet 

(if  uir  per 

minute 


Velocities 


KMIt)  IL'OO  l.rtKt  IMMt  •.'•-'0(1  2.'i(MI  .{(MMI  :{">(M)  J(M)() 


:{7,(KH) 

:w,(MX) 

39,000 
10,000 
•tl.O(K) 
42,(K)0 
4:{,(M)0 
44,000 
4."),(MM) 
4f.,(M)0 
47.(M)0 
4S,(M»0 
49,000 
.')0,(H)0 
51,000 
52,(K)0 
.5:<,0(M) 
M.tMM) 
rM.tMM) 
.'iCi.CHM) 
AV.tMK) 
.W.OOO 
OT.tMK) 
00,000 

r.  1,000 

02, (MM) 
0:{,(MM) 
f)4,{MM) 
G,">,(M)0 

r«r>,(MX) 

f.7,0<M) 
(1S,(KM) 
(i9,(MM» 
70,(MM) 
71,000 
72,(MM1 
73,(MM) 
74.(MM) 


84 
85 

St) 
S7 
K« 
,S9 
W 
91 
<Xi 

9:{ 
95 
95 
90 
97 
9.S 
99 


78 
79 
79 
81 

82 
82 
Ki 
84 
85 
80 
87 

89 
90 
91) 
91 
92 
9.{ 
94 
95 
95 
9() 
97 
9.S 


(W 
»)9 
70 
71 
71 
72 
7.i 
74 
75 
75 
70 
f  i 
7S 
79 

"!• 
.SO 
71 
N2 
S2 

,s:t 
,S4 

.S,5 
.^•'5 
,Sti 

.S7 

.ss 


02 
6.'{ 
63 
04 
05 
00 
00 
07 
OS 
09 
V<) 
70 
71 
72 
73 
73 
74 


7H 
79 
79 
80 


59 
00 
00 
til 
ti2 
03 
03 
(it 
(i5 
(i5 
06 
07 
68 
08 
69 
70 
70 
68 
OS 
09 
09 
70 
71 
71 


73 
74 
75 
75 
7<i 
70 


7S 
7S 
79 


53 
54 


50 
57 
57 
58 
59 
59 
00 
60 
01 
62 
62 
(i3 
03 
04 
(i5 
(i5 
tiO 
00 
ti7 
Ii7 
08 
08 
09 
70 
70 
71 
71 
71 
i  2 
73 
73 
74 
71 


4S 
49 
49 
5t> 
50 
51 
51 
52 
53 
53 
54 
5.5 
55 
56 
50 
57 
57 
58 
.58 
59 
00 
(50 
60 
61 
02 
62 
03 
03 
03 
(il 
(4 
05 
0(i 
tiO 
(36 
07 
07 
OH 


44 
45 
46 
40 
47 
47 
48 
48 
49 
50 
50 
50 
51 
51 
52 
53 
53 
54 
54 
55 
.5.5 
50 
.56 
57 
57 
57 
58 
5S 
.59 
59 
(il) 
(iO 
01 
61 
61 
62 
02 
03 


42 
42 
43 
43 
44 
44 
44 
45 
40 
40 
47 
47 
48 
48 
49 
49 
.50 
.50 
51 
51 
52 
52 
52 
53 
.5.5 
54 
54 
5.5 
55 
5t> 
50 
50 
57 
57 
57 
58 
58 
59 


2,-)0     KSaiSKERISG  OF  SHOPS  AM)  FACTORIES 

TAIUJ;  XXIl   -CAIlllVlNl.i  lAl'ACITY  OF  I'U'KS— to-idnmd 


Cubic  fret 

of  air  per 

iiiinutL' 


Vflocilics 


•.':'()0  2.">00  3(MK)  .3")0n  4(K)0 


7.'..(>0() 
"0,(MK) 
77.fK)t) 
78.IMM) 
7!>,(M»() 
$(I.I)(K) 
Sl.lHK) 
.S_'.(M)fl 
,S:{,i)(M) 
.SJ,(I(K) 
Sr),(M)0 

,Svi,(H;<» 

S7,(I(M) 
88.000 

<«),(>(  10 
91,(«Mi 
0J,O(H) 

0:<,n'i() 

!M.(MM) 
9."i,(MK) 

nil. 001) 

07,000 

9S,(KK) 

9(t,(MK) 

lOO.ftOO 


79 
.SO 
M 
M 

>'j 

S2 
.s:{ 
.s.{ 
.M 
.M 
>.") 
,S."i 
Kti 
S(\ 
.S7 
s7 

HH 
SS 

ss 
.sit 
so 

90 
90 
91 
91 
9-' 


70 
7(> 


7S 
7  s 

ro 
r9 
r9 
so 
so 

SI 

SI 

82 
HH 

s:{ 
,sl 
si 

M 
8.") 
X.") 

sti 

sti 


08 
tiO 
09 
70 
70 
70 
71 
71 


79 

-•> 

79 

H<) 

7'i 

,    Si) 

-'I 

SI 

71 

SI 

7  J 

75 

70 
70 


..s 
7  s 
7'.t 


n:{ 
f.4 
(V4 
(A 

0.') 
0.') 

fiO 

(it; 

tUi 
07 
07 
(IH 
08 
08 
09 
09 
70 
70 
70 
71 
71 
71 


7:! 


.'■)9 
fiO 
00 
GO 
01 
tU 
(>1 
02 
02 
,   *V.i 

04 
M 
04 

0.") 
05 
05 
00 
00 
00 
•17 
07 
08 
08 
OS 


CHAPTER  XXI 
AIR  WASHING  SYSTEMS 

Sevpral  ofToctivo  systems  are  iivailal)lc  for  washinji  and  purify- 
ing; air  Ix'foro  forcing;  it  hy  fans  tu  (liffcrciit  parts  of  l)iiiliiiiijj;s. 
These  ineliide  tlie  Carrier,  Wehster.  Acme,  Kitiealy,  and  otliers. 
Ail  are  niueii  alike  in  essential  principles,  tliouj:li  they  differ 
somewhat  in  detail. 

The  chiet  features  of  air  washing;  and  hunddifyinf!;  systems 
are  the  spray,  separator,  and  the  method  of  humidity  control. 
The  first  of  these  is  one  <<f  the  most  Im])ortant  elements.  It  is 
essential  tlu.t  the  water  lie  divided  as  finelv  and  distributed  as 


l'"i<;.   12S. — Eliminator  plates. 

ovenh'  as  pi.^siMe,  and  one  way  of  obtaining;  the-e  result.s  is  by  a 
special  type  and  arran,!ien;ent  of  nozzles.  The  centrifu<ial  force 
generated  by  the  rai)id  rotation  t>f  water  in  a  nozzle  causes  tiie 
stream  to  burst  into  an  invisible  mist  upon  leavinji  the  orifice. 
The  distribution  of  the  sjiray  fnun  simple  brass  nozzles  is  even 
and  practicalh'  uniform  over  the  eiit  ire  area  of  dischaifie.  When 
dependence  is  placed  on  lateral  discharfre,  the  necessarily  hi;:h 
velocity  of  the  air  throujih  the  ciiatiiber  so  disturlis  the  normal 
form  of  the  spray  that  an  even  distribution  is  imjjossible.  The 
sprays  nuiy,  howe\er,  be  distributed  in  great  numbers  over  the 
entire  area  of  the  eluimber  and  the  direction  of  the  discharge 


2:)2    i:\(ii\/:i':Ri.\(;  of  siioi's  asd  factories 

made  iioiuly  jiarallcl  to  tiic  air  current.  In  tliis  way,  there  will 
he  no  iindesii'alile  distortion  of  tiie  discliarfre  and  the  ciiainher 
will  he  uiiiforniiy  and  coMipieteiy  fiileil  with  a  perfectly  atomized 
spray.     Pipe  littinr.s  slmnld  he  either  galvanized  or  of  hrass,  to 


BV-PASS  DAMPtR; 

ReGULATED  DV ; 

THtRMOSTAT 


CUEVATION 


a 


J 


SPRAt. 
CHAMBER 


iTRAiNER. 

PLA^ 

I  li..    l'.".l.  -.\ir  luirllKT  and  liiiinidilicr. 


"1^ 


|)t<\('iit   corrosidii,   and  a  s\iitahle  strainer  should  he  provided. 
'I'lif  design  of  llic  nozzles  and  of  the  systems  should  he  such  that 
no  .-,1  (ip|i;iL'i'  (If  rhokiui:  lan  occur. 
Construction  of  Eliminator.  -.Vfter  the  spray  water  has  per- 


AIR  WASIIIXG  SYSTE.US 


253 


formed  its  function  of  cloaninfr,  moistening  and  coolinR  the  air, 
nil  free  i)arti(les  of  moisture  and  impurities  should  he  removed; 
at  the  same  time,  no  excessive  resistance  must  he  offered  to  the 
air  passage  which  will  intr-rfere  with  the  ventilation.  This  can 
be  accomplished  l.y  an  arransremerit  of  baffle  plates,  placed 
nearly  vertical  and  i)arallel  to  .-acli  other,  with  a  space  between, 
forming  a  series  of  unbroken  sinuous-  pswsageways.  Kach  baffle 
is  comoosed  of  a  numlier  of  bent  jjlutes  fastened  together.  The 
plates  should  be  non-corroding  and  nuiy  be  con*lructed  of  .sheet 
copper  at  some  aiUlitional  cost.  Owing  to  tiieir  form,  the 
plates  are  rigid  without  excessive  weight,  and  they  should  be 
fastened  together  in  a  substantia,  manner.  The  eliminator 
should  be  .self-contained  and  have  a  itange  connection  f<»i-  attach- 
ment to  the  s,.ray  chamber  and  To  the  fan  i-asing.  It  .should  bo 
rigidly  braced  by  .'uigie  irons  and  supported  on  a  galvanized 
structural  iron  foundatinn. 

Action  of  Eliminator. — The  first  portion  of  the  eliminator  is 
covered  with  a  sheet  of  runninu  water  pivt-ipitiited  from  tiie 
spray  ladei:  air.  The  air  passing  Through  this  ])ortion  imj)inges 
upon  the  wet  surface  and  all  solid  j)articles  in  tlie  air  are  caught 
and  washed  away.  The  s<'cond  portion  contains  li).-iike  j)ro- 
jections  whicii  prevent  the  free  passage  of  water  acro.s.s  the 
surface  and  form  vertical  guitcrs  .lown  which  the  water  flows. 
Xo  trace  (.1  free  moisture  will  be  found  in  the  air  after  passing 
through  the  eliininator,  even  with  high  velocities.  The  lo.ss  in 
pressur(>  of  the  air  in  passing:  ilirough  the  separator  is  inappreci- 
able when  staiidai'd  propoitiojv*  are  used. 

Spray  Chamber.— The  spruv  chamber  should  be  m.-ide  of 
heavy  galvanized  iroti  throuirhoui  and  stiffly  biaci>d  on  the  out- 
side with  IJ-in.  angle  irons.  It  should  be  jmt  together  in 
flanged  .sections  and  be  wan*rtigiit. 

Pumps.-  The  spray  system  may  be  operated  from  tlie  city 
pressure,  although  it  is  usual  to  pumrp  the  water  over  ami  over 
again  until  it  becomes  unfit  for  u.^e.  The  latter  plan  re-|uires 
a  pump,  a  receiving  tank  with  s«"ttling  chamber,  a  strainer,  an 
automatic  sujijily  and  an  overfl»>w.  A  centrifugal  pump  is 
(•onvenient  for  it  can  Im*  nuide  n*tirly  noiseless  in  operation, 
and  may  be  belted  directly  from  ttu'  fan  sliuft  or  driven  !i\  a 
small  direct-connected  motor.  There  are  no  valves  to  w-  ir  out 
or  become  clogged,  making  i;  superior  to  a  pLsto.".  puiap  for 
continuous  service. 


2.11    E\(;isi:i:i{i\(;  of  sm)i's  .wd  iwctouies 

Hygrodeik.  -The  (•(Hiiinun  foiins  of  liydnmu'tcrs  iiiako  it 
lU'ct'ssiiry  for  tli"  (>l)siTvi'r  sifter  readiiiji  lli(>  wet  iiiid  dry  Imlh 
teiii|HM;itiiies.    to   refer   to   u   chart   and   eah-iihile    tlie   relative 


WESH  AIR  INLtT 


C^ 


i[|  wiTm  aiN  1F*CI 


/1\ 


o      o  o       o  o  o 


FIRST  FLOOR  PLAN 
1  1,;,    l;'.ll,      lari  sy>ti-ni  ill  a  ciittnn  mill. 

iiiiiiiidity.  In^truiiiciiK  whirh  imlimir  ihe  relative-  Iminidky 
direci  are  unrelialile;  the  liyiinxhik  consists  of  wet  and  dry 
bulb  iheriuuiiieters   mouuled  in  .such  a  pu.sitiun  that  with  the 


AIR  WASHING  SYSTEMS 


255 


assistance  of  the  diagram  and  pointer,  the  reading  is  taken  with 
ease  and  accuracy.  They  are  made  in  various  styles,  ranging 
in  price  from  $7  to  $11, 

Gas  Heater.— The  adaptation  of  the  gas  heater  to  provide  for 
warming  the  air  entering  a  heating  and  ventilating  system 
represents  a  field  for  use  quite  distinct  from  those  employing 
steam  heated  radiating  coils.  Its  use  is  appli(;uljle  to  any  situa- 
tion where  economy  and  particularly  cleanliness,  minimum 
amount  of  apparatus,  and  automatic  operation  are  desirahio 
features.  Reports  of  tests  read  before  the  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers  in  1905,  show  efficiency  of  gas-fired  steam 
boilers  to  be  seldom  in  excess  of  65  to  75^,  yet  this  can  be  ex- 
ceeded in  the  guaranteed  efficiency  of  the  heater  used,  which  may 
have  a  special  arrangement  for  the  return  of  a  portion  of  the  flue 
gases.  IJesiiles,  the  direct-heat  furnace  is  nmch  cheaper  to 
install  than  a  gas-fired  boiler  and  steam  coil,  hence,  its  wide 
application  in  natural  gas  belts  or  where  fuel  gas  can  be  obtained 
at  ordinary  cost.  In  the  case  of  a  roundhouse  at  Parsons, 
Kansas,  the  design  insures  an  efficiency  .>f  90  per  cent,  at  full 
capacity  with  maximum  furnace  temperature  not  exceeding 
1200°,  and  a  minimimi  temperature  of  waste  gases  about  400°. 

General  Arrangement. — The  apparatus  consists  in  general  of  a 
bank  of  vertical  boiler  tubes  expanded  at  top  and  bottom  into 
wrought-iroii  boiler  pl-.tes.  The  space  between  the  tubes  can  be 
placed  below  the  floor  line,  and  divided  into  two  compartments. 
The  first  compartment  comprises  the  furnace  proper,  where  the 
gas  is  burned  under  general  conditions  described  later.  The 
other  portion  underneath  the  tubes  is  simply  an  exhaust  cham- 
ber for  the  waste  gases.  Above  the  tubes  is  located  a  single 
chamber  which  has  a  removable  sectional  cover  to  provide 
for  cleaning  and  inspection  of  tul)es.  The  ])atli  of  the  gases  is 
thus  upward  through  the  tubes  from  the  lower  to  the  up|)er  cham- 
ber, and  lience  downward  through  the  tubes  to  the  chamber 
underneath.  Above  the  tulies  is  an  exhaust  fan  which  handles 
waste  gases.  The  l>ank  of  tubes  is  enclosed  at  top,  bottom  and 
two  sides,  and  the  current  of  air  for  heating  purposes  is  drawn 
through  by  a  motor-driven  steel  plate  exhauster.  From  this 
fan  the  air  lieate<l  to  a  temperature  of  aJjout  170°  is  distributed 
through  galvanized  iron  ducts  in  the  usual  manner. 

Operation.— The  general  })rocess  cr)iisists  in  first  burning  the  gns 
in  a  lire-brick  combustion  chamber  at  high  temperature  and  with 


I'.-.c.    i:\(;i.\j:i:iii.\(;  of  shops  am)  F.uroiuKs 

very  small  excess  of  air,  ami,  sero'i'l,  mixini:  this  small  volimie 
of  hot  ^ases  at  hij;!!  leiiij.e.  utuie  with  a  larjzer  volume  of  tiie 
recir.iihiled  ino.lucts  of  comlhistion  at  the  relatively  low  tem- 
jieratiire  of  aliout  Mf,  f:ivir,ii  a  resultinf;  tcinporuturo  not  e.\- 
ceeiliii";  12(l()'\ 

Wlu're  natural  ,L'as  is  not  available,  a  ;;as  ftu-naee  heating 
system  may  Ik  o|)erate(l  (piite  as  ecoiioniically  as  a  steam  heat- 
im:  system,     'i'lie   avera<;e   i^as  producer  in   tlie   nuirket,  u<ing 


THtawOtTAT     ; 


In;,    l^il. — I'aii  system  ajiplicd  ti)  a,  cotton  mill. 


soft  coal,  will  .i\('  an  efUcieiicy  of  aiiout  ti.")  to  70  per  cent.  This 
woulil  j:ive  a  coriiipined  eliiciency  of  j;as  produc("r  and  fias  licater 
of  aliout  .")',(  to  ti;}  jier  cent,  in  sucJi  a  system  it  is  customary 
to  pro\ide  for  the  utilization  of  the  exhaust  from  the  ;:as  on;rines 
which  ma\-  lie  introduced  into  the  lowest  chanitx-r.  This  I'x- 
haust  alone  is  frei|uently  suiiicient  to  iieat  the  entire  building 
in  moderate  weather. 


niAI'TKR  XXIT. 
FACTORY  LIGHTING 

With  tlio  (■..mpa.MlivcIy  roc(-nt  intn.,lu.'tion  not  onlv  of  now 
l-«it  of  inodimM  si/,,..l  li^ht  units,  the  art  of  ilhiminatioii  mav  l.o 
Hiiidto  have  (lovi-loi),.,!  into  tlu- scicnt'e  of  illiunin.-itinR  engi- 
nooririK.  This  vIuuvac  with  the  far-roachir.g  possibilities  involvo.l 
111  It,  IS  as  yet  l.iit  in.poi-f.rtly  muiorstood  l.y  the  pul.lic  ut  hirpo 
and  tunc,  thcroforo,  Avill  l,c  m,uiic(l  to  denionstfafo  the  tremen- 
dous advantages  to  he  derived  from  a  seientifie  analysis  n-nv 
attainal.le,  of  any  li-htin-  problem  as  against  the  cut-and-trv 
uu'thr.d  of  arriving  at  a  solution  heretofore  in  common  use 

Iliuminatinp  cnpineerinK  Avhen  applied  to  any  special 'case 
seeks  to  determine  the  Ji-ht  l.est  adaj.ted  for  the  purj.ose  haviuL' 
due  regard  for  all  conditions,  and  emi)races  such  factors  as  quan- 
tity, (piahty,  distribution,  continuity  of  service,  surroundings 
'•<"^ts,  etc.     The  large  variety  of  light  units  and  the  accessory 
apparatus  now  available,  render  a  determinatifm  of  the  propcV 
kmd  of  uiu't  no  longer  a  perplexity  but  a  comparativelv  simple 
matter.     One  of  the  har.lcst  tilings  the  illuminating  engineer 
lias  to  contend  with,  however,  especially  in  interior  lightin-'    i.s 
the  difficulty  in  .netting  down  in  ligures  the  total  economv— not, 
merely  m  the  pro.luction  of  light  itself  but  also  that  made  pos- 
sil'le  by  Its  use— ^^luch  nuiy  be  affected  by  a  modern  system  of 
liitlituig.  and  this  is  particularly  true  in  plants  ulreadv  equipped 
with  lighting  facilities,  inade.iuate  though  these  may  be  in  many 
cases.  •' 

Amon;.'  t!,e  several  items  contributing  to  the  total  gain  are  the 
lollowiiig: 

1.  Decrease  in  cost  of  npcration  and  maintenance  of  the  light- 
ing system,  or  increase  in  the  quantity  and  (piality  of  the  light- 
iiig  for  the  same  cost. 

1'.  'ireater  accuracy  in  workmansiiip  with  consequent  lessen- 
iii'z  of  defcciive  work. 

;i.  Incre.'iso    io    pro,.uction    with    accompanying   decrea.se    in 
<     Kcduc-d  liab-litv  to  accidents. 


2.)8     /t;.\7,7.\7sA7.7.VC.  OF  SHOPS  AM)  FACTOIUKS 


Ti.    I.cssciii    '  of  eye  strain. 

(>.  Moro  clicfrfu!  suriinindiri'r-'". 
It  will  li(«  seen  fnmi  lliis  list  tli:it  uliilc  the  first  of  tin-sc  items  will 
readily  li<>  iippreciutcil  liy  «v(Myl""ly,  since  it  can  he  iii>  .isiitt  d  in 
exact  nullify  values,  such  is  not  the  cn>e  with  the  others;  in 
fact  the  very  existence  nf  some  of  them  may  perhaps  he  a  nmcl 
thoujiht  to  many  people  who  liave  not  ^rivn  the  ihject  of 
lijrhtinn  any  particular  study. 

Ten  years  ml'o  factory  electric  lijihtinj:  wa."  limited  to  th'-  car- 
lion  filam(>nt  and  arc  lamp.  The  smaller  unit,  the  incandescent 
lamp,  is  still  very  useful  where  the  special  ])lacin^  of  small  lamps 
is  necessary.  Likewise  the  arc  lanip  is  useful  for  lar^re  and  hi>;h 
area.s  such  as  hi^jh  hays  of  larpe  machine  shops,  foundries  and 
the  like.  Hut  neither  of  these  .serves  for  '.lose  intermediate 
conditions  tyi)ified  hy  large  rooms  with  ceiliiifis  from  12  to  18  ft. 
in  hei>;ht.  The  siiuill  lamps  did  not  jiive  enoujrii  li>;ht  unless 
used  in  larjre  muiihers,  clusters  often  heinj;  employed  which 
were  in  frciieral  expensive  and  unsatisfactory.  The  are  lamps 
in  such  cases  recjuired  considerable  sejiaration  and  provided 
poor  distriliution,  not  a  very  satisfactory  illumination,  and 
usually  an  intense  light  in  the  line  of  vision. 

Within  the  last  few  years,  tungsten  lamps  of  various  sizes  have 
been  introduced,  witli  candle-power  valu's  lying  between  and 
overla[ipiiig  those  of  the  enclosed  arc  and  the  carbon  filament 
lam])s.  The  relative  efficic  iices  of  the  old  tyju's  and  the  new 
tungsten  lamps  nuiy  lie  roughly  stateil  to  be  2  to  1  with  the  old 
enclosed  ar(  lamps,  atid  from  3  to  1,  to  4  to  1,  with  the  carbon 
filainent  lamps.  The  introduction  of  these  lumps  has  nuido 
possible  what  niay  be  termed  a  ne\\  cru  in  factory  illumination, 
ii  distincti\<;  feature  of  which  is  the  scientific  iii-tallation  of  the 
liirlit  units,  suiting  each  to  the  locati(ui  and  vl;,<s  of  work  for 
which  it  is  best  adapted.  This  was  furmcily  impossible  with 
either  the  ate  o|-  railion  tiiament  lamps. 

The  Candle-power  of  Units. —  Before  the  inlrodurtion  in  recent 
years  of  medium  sized  units,  the  choice  of  the  size  of  imit  for  a 
given  location  was  often  no  choice  at  all.  In  many  cases,  due 
to  small  clearance  between  cranes  and  ceilings,  or  other  condi- 
tions m.'ikiiig  it  necessary  to  mount  the  lamos  very  high  above 
il"'  Ih.ur,  lull  one  size  or  tyj>e  of  unit  was  a>.iilable.  the  cv.'!  on 
filament  lamp  in  the  fniiner  and  the  eiido.sed  carbon  arc  lamp 
in  the  latter  case. 


F.UTOHY  LlanriSa  25U 

For  low  rrilin^rs  „p  f.  IM  ft..   ,l,o  „...  ,  ifhor  of  fl„.  rnrimn 
f.  aiM.-...  or  an-  lamp  msnlt.,]  usually  in  anvMiiriK  1-ut  uniform 
ill.iMiir.at inn  over  the  wurkinj;  planr,  an.l  often  pro.hi.nl  nim-ly 
a  low  general  illumination  wi.i.h  ^^a.s  pra<ti.allv  UMlms  for  tl.o 
iii.livi.lual  nuiclnnes.     I„  such  ra.H,..s,  in.livi.lual  InmpH  hn.l  to  l.o 
|.la.r.l  over  the  n.a.hines.     With  this  arranKonient,  ri-lafivoly 
Hinall  areas  are  lij;|,i..,|,  ami  th.-  m..tal  f.ha.le.s  u.s.ially  employed 
only  servo  to  aerentuato   (he  "  spot -h>h ting "  effort.     Such   a 
form  of  lilununation  for  factory  work  is  unsatisfact..ry  an.l  in- 
Whc.ent,   iM.t   a.s  state.l.  was  in  n.any  cases  the  onlv  "availahle 
scheme.      J  ho  absence  of  himpH  of  tho  proper  size  is  no  longc-r 
an  excuse  for  the  existence  of  such  con.lit  ions  in  industrial  plants 
Relation  of  Lighting  Problems  to  Efficient  Management.-  ].i 
fa.tory   work,   efficiency  «hould   l,e   consi.lerod    from    at    least 
two  v.ew-,,o,nts.  in  the  one  cas<.,  that  of  the  ma.l.ine.  and  in  the 
other,  thM  of  the  workn.an.     The  surrounding  conditions  under 
winch  work  IS  done  ;.;•<.  of  prime  importance  when  considering 
tho   Items  whi.h   contrihute  to    man-etficioncv.     Among  those 
••'"-i'ti""'^  IS  that  of  artificial  light.     l'o„r  illumination  j.roducoH 
u  Lodily  and  mental  discomfort  which  seriously  affects  the  nuin 
and  his  work,     \\hen  the  work  is  seen  with  difficultv.  when  the 
drawings  are  indistinct  and  the  surro.in.lings  dim  and  gloomy 
the   eond.tiuns   necessary  for  high  effici,.n<-y  are   lacking      In 
those    instances,    therefore,    where    superi.,;    illumination    im- 
l.n.vos  the  physical  characteristics  which  tend  toward  a  helt.-r 
class  of  work  and  affords  more  cheei-ful  cnditions,  it  should 
without  (picstion,  1)0  provided.  ' 

How  much  is  the  accuracy  and  general  (pialitv  of  workmanship 
improved  by  good  instead  of  pc.or  lighting  results? 

How  much  does  the  stimulating  effect  of  bright  surroun.lingH 
cuntribuf.  to  cheerfulness  of  mind  an.l  ah-rtness  of  a.'fion"' 

How  many  mistakes  in  rea.ling  figures  on  blueprints  or  on 
scales  .ire  .luo  t.i  p..or  illumination? 

How    mu..h   fatigue  ami   ey<-  strain   and    impaired   vision  h 
cause.l  hy  infermr  or  impr.)per  lighting? 

To  '  i,,a  extent  are  acci.lents  to  machinery  an.!  to  w.)rkmcn 
decreased  by  having  good  instea.l  of  p,,,,,-  illuminati..n" 

It  IS  ,li(h,.ult  to  answer  th.-,M>  <|uestions  in  a  .lefinite  manner 
l'»t  no  one  familiar  with  in.lustrial  .•on.litions  will  take  exc-ep- 
t.on  to  the  statement  that  goo.l  illumination.  ..f  a  sufficientiy 
high  intensity,  is  belter  than  that  of  a  low  an.l  insufficient  inten- 


'i-i- 


^*;' 


MMi 


MICROCOPY    RESOIUTION   TEST   CHART 

lANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No    2) 


=r.  '6?!    losl     Mo^n     STe»i| 

^=         l''61    482  -  C30e  -  Phone 


200     EXaiNEERIXG  OF  SflOI'S  AND  FACTORIES 

sity.  And  if  it  can  l)c  sliown  tiiat  tlio  actual  cost  f)f  ^jood  iliuiiii- 
nation  is  small  compared  with  the  value  of  the  advantajies 
secured,  then  inadecinate  lifrhtinj;  has  no  defence. 

The  practical  problems  involved  in  plannin.i;  a  lijrhtinj;  system 
are  the  deternu'nation  of  the  factors  Avhicli  constitute^  iiood  illumi- 
nation, by  caref\d  study  of  the  exact  conditions  under  v.hich  the 
lijrht  is  to  l)e  usml,  and  the  adaptation  of  I  lie  ni(>ans  at  hand  to 
these  conditicms.  Simple  as  these  prol)lems  may  seem,  when 
carefully  analyzed,  they  will  be  found  to  be  much  more  intricate 
and  involved  than  mij;ht  be  exi)ected. 

Importance  of  Good  Illumination  in  Factory  Work. — A  iec|uato 
illumination  increases  output.  A  sa.in<i  of  even  several  miinites 
j)(>r  ilay  for  the  workmen  will  soon  ))ay  for  the  entire  cost  of 
installinji  and  operating  a  suitable  factory  li,t;htin<i  system.  'J'he 
li-ihtiufr  of  industrial  jilants  is  one  of  the  factors  which  ])romotes 
elhciency.  I. ike  jiood  ventilation,  and  ade(|iKite  heatinj;:  sys- 
tem, or  cleanliness  and  neatness,  a  {rood  lijrhtinfr  system  is  a 
necessary  item  in  maintiunin<;  a  liijih  standard  of  workmanship. 
In  the  early  morniufi  and  late  afternoon  hours,  and  on  cloudy 
days,  many  factories  are  in  i)ractical  darkness  as  far  as  dayli<;iit 
is  concerned.  No  one  sinjile  factor  is  as  import  tint  as  lifrht, 
whether  natural  or  artificial,  as  an  aid  in  k{H'i)iiij;-  production  at  a 
Iiijih  efhciency  throughout  the  entire  workinji  day.  As  the  nifiht 
turn  is  entirely  dependent  on  artificial  lijrht,  the  imjiortance  of 
factory  light  ini;'  fidin  this  standpoint  caiuiot  be  overestimate<l. 

The  Relative  Cost  Factors  of  Light. — The  manager  is  jxrhaps 
most  conceined  with  the  cash  value  i>f  the  light  How  imu'h 
of  a  retui-n  in  cpiantity  and  ([uality  of  work  will  icsult  from  the 
adoption  of  a  superior  system  as  com])ai('d  with  an  inferior  one, 
is  the  deterniiniiig  ([Uestion.  The  value  of  good  light  may  be 
placed  in  terms  of  time  saved  by  the  em])]o>'ee  in  jierforming  a 
piven  amoimt  of  work,  in  the  greater  accuracy  and  ]ieifection 
of  the  Work,  in  tlu'  sa\ing  of  the  ey(>s  of  the  workmen,  and  in 
promoting  the  facilities  for  better  and  inoi'e  work  liy  i)roviding 
brighter  and  more  <'heerful  surreuuidings.  If  then,  belter  ligiit, 
may  be  inter])i'eted  in  teims  of  so  nnicii  time  save(l  by  the  em- 
ployee in  factory  operation,  the  ei|uivalent  in  wages  of  this 
tim(>  saved,  is  an  asset  of  the  iiii))ro\('(l  lighting  system. 

Assume  tiiat  the  amnial  o]ieration  and  mainteiuiiu'e  cost 
for  a  tyi)ical  factory  bay.  Itl  ft.  by  40  ft.,  may  ix-  taken  as  ?.")0. 
As.sume  further  that  sue h  a  bav  will  accommodate  five  vvorknien 


^m^m^ 


FACTORY  LUlirnSG 


261 


whose  liourly  rate  avorajios  1'.")  cents  and  whoso  annual  wajies 
e<iiial  S;i.JOO.  ]iy  addiii-  to  tliis  hilior  eost  100  i)er  cent,  for  over- 
liead  burden  or  indirect  fa.tory  expense,  thoftross  annual  cost  of 
the  hay  will  total  S7000.  Since  the  cost  of  operation  and  main- 
tenance of  the  lifihtinfT  is  SoO,  it  is,  therefore,  only  0.7  per  cent, 
of  S7000,  or  0.7  per  cent,  of  the  gross  wages.  This  per  cent,  of 
the  wages  f()r  a  day  of  ten  hours  is  equivalent  in  time  to  a  little 
over  four  miiuites.  It  is  not  unreasonable  to  assume  that  poor 
lighting  will  cost  at  least  one-half  of  this,  or  two  minutes  in 
wages.  Surely,  therefore,  if  good  light  enables  a  workman  tn  do 
better  or  more  woi'k  to  an  extent  e(iual  to  only  two  minutes  in 
wages  i)er  day,  the  additional  cost  (,f  good  lighting  over  inade- 
quate lighting  will  certainly  have  paid  for  itself. 

In  one  case  a  superintendent  said  that  his  men  lost  from  one 
to  two  hours  ])er  day  on  dark  days,  due  to  insufficient  liglit. 
Tliis  jueant  that  the  wages  paid  for  an  hour  or  two  each  day  was 
a  complete  loss  to  the  company.  Often,  therefore,  an  apparently 
expensive  lighting  efjuiijuient  will  j)rove  economical.  If  one 
kind  of  light  has  a  marked  advantage  over  another,  its  use  will 
result  in  better  or  more  work,  fewer  delays,  less  eve  strain,  and 
in  general,  greater  sat  i- 'ict  ion. 

General  Requirements.— No  factory  can  afford  to  have  its 
employees  working  under  an  inadecpiate  illumination,  as  the 
losses  in  output  far  overbalance  any  sui)i)osed  economy  in  the 
energy  which  may  be  saved  ],y  such  means. 
^  Factory  lighting  should  be  reliable— unsttady  or  inreliable 
light  is  very  demoralizing. 

Specially,  factory  lighting  should  provide  the  following  fea- 
tures: 

1.  Adequate  light  for  each  employee. 

2.  (iood  illumination  everywhere  on  the  working  plane,  and,  if 
possible,  when  the  floor  space  is  crowded  with  woikn'ien  the 
illumination  should  be  of  a  satisfactory  intensity  without  regard 
to  the  location  of  tiie  work;  that  is,  the  illumination  should  be 
uniform  throughout  the  entire  shop. 

3.  Such  illumination  as  to  make  individual  carbon  fdament 
lamps  unnecessaiy  except  in  very  special  cases.  Sometimes, 
liowever,  individual  lamps  on  nuicliines  must  be  provided. 

4.  Illumination  provided  by  an  arrangement  and  size  of  units 
which  a^■oids  glare  due  to  light  from  an  intense  .source  strikhig 
the  eve. 


'^J^ 


202     EXGIXKKRIXG  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


Tlic  pictcdinp;  re(iuircnipnts  sliould  bo  fulfilled  by  a  tyi)e  of 
liunp  suit;d)li'  to  tlio  ihiss  of  woik  pcrforintHl,  iuid  to  general 
physical  conditions,  such  as  clearance  between  cranes  and 
ceilings. 

Certain  Items  Bearing  on  Effective  Illumination. — The  inten- 
sity of  illun'ination  on  the  working  surface  is  one  of  the  irnj  )r- 
tant  items  whicli  deteriuine  the  success  or  failure  of  any  lighting 
system.  The  eye  is  atTectcd  by  the  intensity  of  the  light  reflected 
from  the  object,  rather  than  by  the  intensity  of  the  light  on  the 
object.  Hence  where  the  materials  oi  i)arts  are  of  a  very  dark 
color,  more  light  may  be  re(iuired  for  a  certain  factory  si)ace 
than  where  the  work  is  lighter  in  color.  For  this  reason  factory 
conditions  often  present  difficulties  in  the  matter  of  proper 
illumination  which  are  not  in  evidence  in  ofhce  work,  or  in 
installations  of  a  different  class.  The  required  intensity  of  the 
illumin;'"  n  for  various  kinds  of  work  is  an  item  impossii)le  to 
completi  y  sjjecify.  It  has  been  found  that  2.5  foot-candles  on 
the  working  surface  is  siiflicient  for  machine  work  where  practi- 
cally no  daylight  is  present.  In  other  cases  where  light  is  re- 
(luired  on  the  sides  of  objects,  and  where  the  work  itself  is  of  a 
nature  re(iuiring  the  distinction  of  much  detail,  illumiiKition 
intensities  of  five  foot-candles  and  over  are  sometimes  necessary. 

The  intensity  of  the  illumination  is  not,  however,  always  tin- 
most  imiiortant  featui'e.  In  some  cases  where  color  contrast  is 
largely  lacking,  an  increase  in  the  intensity  will  not  better  condi- 
tions. In  otiier  cases,  the  discrimination  is  based  almost  entirely 
on  shadow  elTect.  In  finishing  a  die  for  a  ])tmcliing,  dei)endence 
may  be  ])laced  almost  entirely  on  the  shadows  along  the  edges 
of  the  die  in  jii  Iging  of  the  exactness  of  the  lii.  In  an  instance 
of  this  kind,  a  drop  lamp  in  the  hands  of  the  workman,  who  can 
thus  control  the  direction  of  the  light,  will  be  far  better  than  any 
amount  of  overhead  illumination,  no  matter  what  the  intensity. 

Classification  of  Pioblems  in  Factory  Work. — A  classification, 
in  complete  form,  .  the  van<nis  cases  included  umler  this  head 
will  be  hardly  po.ssibio  of  successful  accom])lislunent.  Factory 
lighting  problems  might  be  grouped  according  to  surroundings, 
that  is,  whet  iter  ceiling  and  walls  are  light  or  dark;  the  presence 
or  al)sence  of  line  shafting  and  belting;  the  work,  whether  flat, 
as  in  the  case  of  some  bench  work,  or  consisting  of  high  machines 
and  other  obstructions  to  light.  It  might  also  be  groui)ed 
ai'eording  to  the  height  of  ceiling  and  width  of  location,  although 


SJHK^S^^!^ 


■J^ ■■'I  ■■    ...    ^L   '- 


f> 


^T^K^U 


FACTORY  LIGHTING 


263 


in  Huch  a  sfhomo,  two  siJiiccs  of  the  same  dimensions  and  ceiling 
lieight  might  cull  for  entirely  sejjanite  illumination  plans  due  to 
other  conditions,  as  before  suggested.  For  these  reasons  a 
complete  classification  of  work  of  this  kind  is  hardly  possible 
or  even  advantageous.  It  has,  however,  been  found  convenient 
and  heli)ful  in  a  given  factory  to  separate  the  lighting  problems 
in  the  various  locatimis  according  to  ceiling  heights,  because  the 
sixe  of  lam))s  and  their  spacing  depend  to  a  large  extent  on  this 
factor.  Low  ceilings  generally  call  for  suiall  or  medium  sized 
Ian  ps,  while  large  lamps  are  more  applicable  to  the  higher  ceil- 
ings and  mounting  heights. 

The  Overhead  Method  of  Lighting. — A  system  of  lighting  in 
which  the  lamps  ;ire  mounted  above  the  hcadts  of  the  workmen 
can  be  made  to  fulfill  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  recpiiroments  better 
than  other  systems.  The  advantages  of  this  so-called  overhead 
system  as  compared  with  those  in  which  individual  cart.un 
filament  lamps  mainly  nre  depended  upon,  are  as  follows: 

1.  Such  a  system  can  be  made  to  furnish  good  illumination  at 
each  point  of  the  working  plane,  thus  permitting  work  to  be 
done  with  ecpud  comfort  at  any  point. 

2.  In  many  cases  it  can  be  made  to  furnish  a  light  of  .such 
(jUality  as  jiracticaily  to  eliminate  the  necessity  for  individual 
lamps. 

:i.  \^y  momiting  the  lamps  at  the  j)roper  height  and  making  a 
selection  of  the  proper  size,  glare  can  be  practically  eliminated. 

-1.  The  eye  is  sul)ject  to  a  harmful  effect  from  the  use  of  a 
single  lamp  placed  directly  over  and  close  to  the  work.  The 
bright  spot  of  light,  generally  of  too  high  an  intensity,  about 
the  work,  if  surrounded  by  a  region  of  comparative  darkness, 
causes  the  eye  to  become  fatigued  since  the  line  of  vision  is  con- 
tinually changing  from  the  bright  area  to  the  darker  surround- 
ings. This  .strain  <m  tlie  eye  can  be  largely  avoided  if  the  entire 
working  sm-face  is  provided  with  a  uniform  illumination  of 
moderate  intensity. 

').  Economy  in  maintenance  is  secured  as  compared  with  a 
system  with  large  numbers  of  drop  lamps. 

().  The  appearance  is  neater  and  more  pleasing. 

Examples. — A  few  instances  of  the  satisfactory  results  ob- 
tained with  this  method  of  lighting  will  serve  to  show  with 
what  favor  it  is  viewed. 

In  one  factorv  location  with  low  ceilings,   carbon  filament 


fW^^^SM^-' 


r:'.- 


201    i:.\(iL\i':Ki{i\a  of  shops  a\d  factories 


clusters  with  imlividiial  iiiciiiKlcscont  l:inij)s  over  cacli  niachino 
luul  Ihh'u  in  wi'ivicc.  A  system  (tf  l(M)-\v:itt  tun<isten  iani])s 
was  installed,  i)iactieally  all  iiuiividual  lanijjs  heinj;  removed 
from  the  lathes  and  other  maehines.  The  whole  appearance 
was  made  more  cheerful.  The  manager  staled  that  the  prol)l(>m 
of  men  desiring  to  he  transferred  to  t)ther  departments  on 
account  of  the  ilarkness,  was  solved.  Some  of  the  workmen 
were  overheard  to  say  that  tools  and  machine  ])ai  ^  were  found 
which  up  to  that  time  had  been  lost  in  corners  due  to  the  ilark 
surroundings,  the  shoj)  receiving  practically  no  daylight  and 
tiierefore  having  been  constantly  in  partial  darkness. 

In  another  instance  where  tungsten  lamjjs  replaced  a,  poor 
system  of  very  large  units,  Kui)])lemented  by  indi'i  '"al  lamps, 
the  superintendent  stated  that  on  many  da'-s,  because  of  insuf- 
ficient light  in  the  early  morning  and  the  iate  afternoon  hours, 
liis  workmen  lost  one  and  one-half  hours  j)er  day.  This  condi- 
tion was  entirely  changed  by  installing  the  overhead  system. 
Practically  all  drop  lamj)s  were  removed.  In  still  another 
factory  location  a  superintendent  blamed  defective  work  to 
inadeiiuatc  light.  He  stated  that  he  liad  experienced  great 
difficulty  in  retaining  a  good  class  of  he]]).  Large  tungsten 
lam])s  tnuis.o.-ned  the  dark  and  dingy  location  to  one  of  cheer- 
ful and  i)leasing  a])])earance,  and  ])ut  an  end  to  comi)laints. 

Another  factory  location  had  been  in  alniost  complete  darknes.-! 
as  far  as  overhead  lighting  was  concerned.  The  almost  hvimor- 
ous  Stat  'inent  was  made  U])()n  tlie  installation  of  a  good  over- 
head system,  that  the  men  did  not  wear  out  their  slioes  as  fast 
as  formerly — meaning  that  tl.e  matter  of  getting  around  had 
been  comi)licated  by  their  stuml)ling  against  the  loose  iron  and 
material  which  had  l)een  allowed  to  uccuimilate  on  the  floor 
when  th"  illuminati'iu  was  so  poor.  An  inspection  of  the  place 
after  the  new  system  was  installed  showed  it  to  be  in  perfect 
order  and  the  floor  space  neat  and  clean.  Mudi  satisfaction 
was  evidenced  by  the  workmen. 

The  substitution  of  an  overhead  system  will  promote  a  liigher 
efficiency  of  production,  as  well  as  greater  ch(H'rfuIne.-s  ami  a 
better  spirit  among  the  workmen,  which  though  ditticult  to 
express  in  money  value,  for.ns  a  distinct  feature  in  the  promo- 
tion of  good  and  efficient  workmanship. 

Glare.-  One  of  the  most  pernicious  effects  of  imprc^perly 
arranged  lamp,-  is  the  glare  produced  by  a  source  of  consideraMo 


^m\i^k^:.^;^7.::!'^^^J^J^S^^%-^% 


{Tiv^. 


'^,. 


f^i^ms^mmf^^mmg^mmaa^mm 


FACTORY  LiailTIXG 


265 


brilliancy  when  uurthioKlctl  fniiii  the  eye.  In  fiittory  work  tho 
points  which  have  a  large  bearing  on  the  glare,  may  be  noted 
under  the  four  following  divisions: 

1.  Mounting  Height  of  Lamp. — As  a  general  rule,  it  is  best  to 
mount  all  lamps  well  out  of  range  of  vision.  The  argument  that 
the  lamps  should  be  close  to  the  work  for  the  purpose  of  gaining 
the  greatest  effectiveness  from  the  lamps  is  poorly  founded, 
since  the  increa.se  in  intensity  by  mounting  them  low  n>ay  be 
more  than  offset  by  the  evil  effect  on  the  eye  produced  by  lamps 
mounted  in  the  bne  of  vision. 

2.  Size  of  Lamps. — The  size  of  lamps  has  much  to  do  with 
ghn-o.  It  has  i)eeu  found  that  where  the  ceiling  is  low  a  small 
lamj)  is  not  nearly  so  trying  to  the  eye  as  a  large  one. 

3.  Spacing  of  Lamps. — The  .sj)acing  has  a  certain  bearing  on 
the  glare,  since  the  closer  the  lamps  the  smaller  may  be  their 
size  to  provide  a  given  intensity. 

4.  Type  of  Reflectors  Used. — While  modern  reflectors  have, 
as  one  of  their  greatest  claims,  the  resulting  increase  in  efficiency 
of  light  distribution,  the  protection  afforded  in  shielding  the  eye 
from  the  lamp  filament  is  also  a  very  important  item. 

Shielding  Effect  of  Girders. — Very  often  in  factory  construc- 
tions, glare  may  be  mucn  reduced  by  mounting  the  lami)s  so 
that  they  are  protected  b\-  some  feature  of  the  building  con- 
struction. Thus  in  the  room  shown  in  Fig.  l:i2,  the  girders 
afford  an  excellent  protection  for  the  eye,  while  in  that  shown 
in  Fig.  133,  the  lamps  are  all  visil)le  down  the  ai.sle  whenever  a 
workman  looks  up  from  his  work. 

Selection  of  Lamps. — The  seh>ction  of  lamp  units  best  adapted 
to  fac  )ry  conditions  and  their  most  advantageous  installation 
are  twj  essential  factors  of  shop  lighting.  The  questions  in- 
volved arc:  proper  number  and  size  of  units;  their  best  arrange- 
ment; economy  in  operation;  relative  first  cost,  and  installation 

CO.-itS. 

Number  of  Lamps  per  Unit  of  Floor  Space. — On  this  item 
depends  the  realization  of  a  uniform  and  satisfactory  distrii)U- 
tion  of  tho  light.  Care  should  be  taken  to  choose  the  nund)er 
of  units  per  unit  of  floor  space,  which  will  furnish  a  .sufficiently 
uniform  illumination  to  meet  the  imj)ortant  condition,  that 
work  can  be  pcformed  at  any  point  on  the  floor  without  regard 
t")  location.  The  next  step  will  ho  that  of  selecting  a  size  and 
tyi)e  of  unit  which,  with  coi  lect  spacing,  will  furnish  an  illuniin- 


?<i 


"Wif.^^^^'m' 


wm 


2CG     ENGINEERING  OF  SHOPS  Ah      FACTORIES 


l"iu.  i:52. — Shop  interior  at  night.     Vertical  surfaces  well  illuminated. 


* 

;,— ,^,.                mil  ij-    '  jiAmrt 

^-■sstssusiju     ..^.       '""^^K*^ '   ''^^jHt 

« 

A--^4r.  t  ^  — r-— — ^^^^^  B 

sir 

FiQ.  13,3. — Shop  interior  at  night. 


■mUtty-      W^iiJrX  |fft-T  i.^s^v-asa 


j^m^^smms:^iizi^3^^:!^mmm 


FACTORY  LIGHTING 


267 


ation  of  sufFicicnt  intensity.     An  cxiinii.io  will   illustrate  this 
point. 

250-Watt  versus  loo-Watt  Units. — A  larRo  area  was  to  be 
lighted,  and  2.")0-watt  tiwiKstcn  lumps  provided  in  sueh  numbers 
as  to  jfive  a  uniform  and  sufficient  intensity  of  illumination, 
appeared  tlesirable.  The  use  of  this  fairly  large  unit  wouhl  have 
resulted  in  u  somewhat  low  first  eost  of  installation,  the  number 
of  lamps  per  unit  area  Ix'iiig  small.  There  were  so  nnmy  work- 
men in  each  bay,  however,  that  men  located  at  certain  positions 
with  respect  to  the  lam])s  would  have  worked  to  a  disadvantage 
because  of  marked  shadows.  It  ,  as  important  that  work  be 
don(>  with  ease  at  any  point  of  the  floor  space.  In  this  par- 
ticular instance,  carbon  filament  lamps  had  been  used  for  years 
as  drop  lights  over  each  bench.  With  rejieated  shifting  of  the 
work  a  continual  adjustment  of  these  drop  lights  was  necessary. 
This  maintenance  expense  was  considered  sufficiently  large  to 
be  a  factor  in  tne  substitution  of  an  overhead  lighting  system 
and  the  subsecpient  removal  of  all  drop  lights. 

Hero  the  use  of  nine  100-\\'att  tungsten  lamps,  per  standard 
2")  by  2.')-ft.  l)ay,  rather  than  four  2.')0-watt  lamps,  produced  a 
satisfactory  result.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  choice  of  the 
number  of  units  i)er  bay  depended  on  the  furnishing  of  light 
etpially  good  in  every  direction  at  any  point  in  the  bay.  The 
use  of  the  2r)()-watt  lami)S  would  have  resulted  in  a  distribution 
as  luiiform,  and  an  intensity  ctjually  great,  without  fulfilling 
thr  ■  •  "'(luirement  in  tlie  matter  of  direction,  which  in  this 
ca  ortant. 

■  .^amps. — At  present  the  size  of  units  is  a  much  larger 
faitoi  .,;an  ever  before.  If  the  ceiling  height  is  low,  say  12  ft. 
or  undei,  the  use  of  arc  lam])s  is  ol)jectionaV)le  because  of  their 
relatively  Jiigh  candle-power;  and  besides  the  glare,  the  himps 
cannot  be  used  economically  in  sufficient  numbers  to  provide 
uniform  light  distribution.  Here,  medium  sized  units  have  the 
advantage,  and  (>0-watt  and  100-watt  tungsten  lamps  have 
been  used  successfully. 

For  bays  f)f  40  to  GO  ft.,  in  height,  500-watt  tungsten  lamps 
may  be  usoil.  For  intermediate  ceilings  from  12  to  18  ft.,  in 
height,  lamps  of  the  100  to  400-watt  sizes  seem  best  adapted 

Mounting  Height  of  Units  Above  Floor.— In  factory  work 
the  mount i!ig  height  of  lamps  will  often  be  governed  by  the 
details  of  building  construction  and  the  interference  of  cranes. 


mmmmmm 


M¥^-W^^:3^^'r^^9M 


LHis    K\(;i\i:i:h'i\(;  or  siiors  asd  f.utoi{u:s 

All  units  slimild  he  iiidunlcd  so  as  to  he  out  of  tlip  niiij^c  of  \  ision. 
This  couditioti  may  lie  iMtcii)rctc(l  in  M'Vcral  ways.  Tlic  ularo 
from  lamps  will  not  lie  so  noiii  ,il>lc  to  workmen  who  constantly 
look  down  at  their  work,  as  when  the  ••>(«  is  for  the  most  i)art 
directed  alon;^  the  horizontal.  A^ain  a  sniidl  lamp  in  tiie  lino 
of  \  ision  will  n^t  he  so  annoying:  as  ,,  laif;e  oiie.  One  solution, 
when  tlie  lamjis  nuist  necessarily  lie  mounted  low  with  re.sj)ect 
to  the  lloor,  will  he  to  iise  smaller  lamjis  in  iar;;er  nun. hers. 

( ilare  is  jirohaiily  of  less  importance  in  factory  work  than  in 
ollices,  hut  is  harmful  nevertheles.s.  The  ulare  from  rays  of 
excessive  hri;fhtn(>ss  should  he  avoided  hecause  "i  lowers  the 
sensitiveness  of  tlu^  eye.  Tin-  intensity  of  the  illumination  on 
the  work,  while  possihiy  .sulliciently  hij;h  uiuUt  other  comlii.ms 
with  lamps  jjroperly  placed  and  siiielded,  may  seem  to  he  insuf- 
ficient, due  to  this  redintion  of  sensitiveness.  From  the  i)iiysical 
stand])oint,  the  elTect  of  fjlare  and  the  sui)se(|uent  eye  strain 
is  an  evil,  and  it  is  evident  that  a  workman  !o  lie  of  the  most 
value,  should  he  surrounded  hy  the  most  achar  if^eous  condi- 
tions for  i)romotin,t;  rai>idity  and  accuracy  in  his  woik. 

Illumination  of  Vertical  Surfaces.  —Another  important  feature 
connected  with  the  mounting'.  hei;ilit  is  the  furnishin-;  of  li<;ht 
at  an  anjile,  so  as  to  illuminate  tiie  side  of  the  tool  or  piece  of 
Avork.  Tlie  point  at  -which  the  tool  is  makinji'  :i  cut  m;iy  reipiiro 
lijrht  from  an  aniilc  rather  than  from  a  point  directly  overliead 
For  a  fiiveii  s])acin;;  of  lami)s,  the  hi.uher  they  are  mounted,  tlio 
more  concentrating  nnist  he  the  reliecicr  to  ))roduce  the  hi;ihest 
efficiency  of  horizontal  illumination  on  the  workinjj  suiface. 
This  illumination  on  tlie  horizontal  surface  nuiy  not,  liowever, 
he  the  greatest  feature  of  importanc(>.  One  way  to  secure  more 
illumination  on  tiie  side  of  machines  is  to  lower  the  lamps  and 
use  more  l)roadly  distril)i'.tin<r  reflectors,  so  that  the  lij;lit  is 
directed  sidewise  as  well  as  ih.wnward.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  lamps  are  mounted  too  low,  they  hecome  ohjectionahle 
hy  heinj;  in  the  line  of  vision  ^^llen  a  man  looks  up  from  his 
work.  Tluis,  in  one  instance  where  the  maxin.um  possihle 
mounting  hei-ht  was  1.3  ft.  0  i-.,  it  was  found  desirahlo  to  place 
the  lamps  at  this  height  te  void  filare;  the  side  lif;htin<r  was 
secured  hy  iisinj;  hroader  distril)Utinjr  reflectors  and  .somewhat 
larger  lamjw  tlian  ordinarily  would  have  heen  necessary,  thus 
hrinjiing  up  the  liorizontal  intensity  to  the  same  value  as  with 
the  more  concentrating  reflectors  and  smaller  lamp.s,  and  at  the 


FACTORY  LI  (HIT  I  SO 


269 


flnmo  time  providing  the  iicn  ^sary  side  light  for  the  vertical 
surfiiccs. 

Reflectors  for  Uniform  IlluTnination.—riiiforniity  of  the  ilhimi- 
niitioii  on  the  working  siiifa((>  gcncniliy  refers  to  the  illunii' 
nation  on  the  horizontal  i)l:ui(s,  simihir  to  :i  l)ench  or  tv  tiil'le. 
I'niform  int(>nsity  of  illiniiiniition  over  tlio  entire  heneh  or 
floor  sni-facc  of  a  room  is  ^enirjil!'-  looked  upon  ii>  :'n  a(l\iintagc 
in  a  li^litiiig  system,  and  is  sometimes  tlie  only  factor  considered. 

Hellc,  tors  or  shades  ha\e  heeii  made  for  two  piiiposes.  One 
ol>j(>ct  is  to  shield  the  direct  rays  of  the  lamp  from  the  eyes,  the 
otiier  heiim  to  reilirect  the  light  from  the  lamp  in  the  most  use- 
fnl  and  eliective  direction.  In  so  far  as  this  scieiitifii;  side  of 
reliectors  is  concerned,  tliey  arc  now  designc(l  so  as  to  furnish 
fairly  definite  results,  I{nles  for  the  use  of  such  reflectors  call 
for  a  certain  relation  hetwecu  the  spacing  of  lamps  and  their 
mounting  height,  if  uniform  downward  liuiht  over  the  entire 
working  sui-face  is  ilesired.  For  example,  one  ty|)e  of  reflector 
calls  for  a  spacing  of  lamps  e<(ual  to  0.7  of  the  mounting  height 

i        h.        6.        ^        ^ 


'??• 

/ 

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5s. 

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1/6  K 

0 



Fui.  I'M. — Viiriation  in  intensity  of  illuniiniition,  witli  various  nK)iinting 

lu'ighls. 

above  tlu>  floor.  If  this  relation  between  spacing  and  natunling 
is  followed,  uniformity  of  the  ilhiminaticm  on  the  plane  assumei;, 
may  be  expected,  although  other  effects  such  as  ceiling  reflec- 
tion may  tend  to  vary  the  residting  intensity.  In  case  this 
relation  is  violated  by  mounting  the  lamps  either  higher  or  lower 
tiian  called  for  by  rules  -  'ii(  h  consider  uniformity  of  the  down- 
ward light,  the  resulting  ilmmination  on  the  working  .surface  may 
depart  very  radically  from  a  condition  of  uniformity. 

Test  for  Uniformity. — The  effect  on  this  illumination  caused  liy 
variations  in  the    mounting  heights  is  indicated  by  P'ig.  134. 


i@^^;*?e«?3iaki)f^«^f^^M^^^  e^M' 


'270     KSaiSKKUlSd  OF  SIKH'S  AM)  FACTOKIKS 


The  luwcr  curve,  iiunkctl  .vitli  a  riinuntinn  liclfjht  of  12  ft.  (>  in., 
shows  all  appnixiiii'itf  iiiiifuriiiity  nf  tlic  illiiiiiiiiatiiii.  'I'ho 
rt'iiiaiiiiiin  nirvcs  .show  the  ctTccI  mi  the  iiitt-iisity  of  the  illiiiiiiim- 
tioii  at  the  saiiio  Idcatiitris  wlicii  ilic  lamps  and  rcllcctorH  aro 
luwcri-d.  If,  then,  iiniforiiiity  of  tlu>  illiitiiinatitui  is  (ii'sircd, 
siirli  rules  as  are  indicateil  l.y  the  various  reflector  eoinpaiiies 
for  the  sjiacinj:  and  mounting  of  lamps  for  u  given  reflector, 
.should  lie  adhered  to. 

Value  of  Light  Ceilings.— With  a  light  ceiling,  the  reflection 
of  that  portion  of  the  light  which  j)asses  through  the  reflector 
to  the  ceiling,  and  which  is  added  to  the  light  directed  down- 
ward from  the  reflectors,  is  a  factor  in  building  up  the  intensity 
(>*"  the  illumination  on  the  working  surfaces.  In  a  case  of  this 
kind  uniform  illumination  is  obtained  b\  he  use  of  almost  any 
reflector  whether  designed  for  the  jnirposr  or  not,  firoviiled  the 
lamjis  are  fairly  close  together.  In  fact,  tests  indicate  that  if 
lamps  without  any  reflectors  whatever  are  installeil  in  a,  nx-m 
with  a  particularly  light  ceiling,  fairly  uniform  illumination  will 
result.  Under  such  a  condition,  however,  the  bad  effect  of  the 
unshielded  lamps  will  call  for  reflectors  of  some  kind.  It  shoidd 
also  be  stated  that  while  a  uniform  light  distribution  may  result 
where  no  reflectors  are  used,  the  intensity  of  the  illumination 
when  measured  on  the  working  plane  may  be  increa.sed  by  as 
much  as  (10  jier  cent.,  by  the  use  of  efficient  reflectors.  This  is 
due  to  the  utilizaticii  of  the  liorizontal  rays  of  light  which  pre- 
dominate in  the  bare  tungsten  lamp,  whereas  the  most  efTect- 
ivc  light  rays  for  factory  woik  are  those  which  arc  directed 
downward. 

Lighting  Circuits.— -The  matter  of  suitable  lighting  circuits 
is  an  important  consideration.  tSome  units  are  ada[)tcd  to  direct 
current  only,  others  operate  most  favorably  with  certain  fre- 
(piencies  of  alternating  current.  All  units  to  be  iiK.st  effective 
should  be  supplied  with  constant  voltage.  In  factory  work, 
the  power  load  will  lu  aily  always  be  found  to  exceed  that  for 
lighting.  With  the  lighting  and  pov.-'r  .-ircuits  separate,  it  is 
easier  to  maintain  the  voltage  constant  on  the  lamps. 

Switch  Control. — The  switch  control  of  tlui  lamps  in  any  light- 
ing system  is  of  importance,  especially  where  large  numbers 
of  small  or  medjim  sized  units  are  used.  That  method  of  con- 
trolling the  lanijis  is  most  economical  in  which  the  interest, 
depreciation,  and  niaintenancu  ijuulvcd  in  the  firat  cool  of  iho 


FACTOHY  LlCHTISa 


271 


iiiwtiillntion  oi  switches  and  thoir  nltondnnt  wiring,  docs  not  px- 
cecd  the  cost  of  tlic  onerfty  siived  hy  tlieir  u«c  in  b«<ing  uhle  to 
turn  out  the  lanipH  which  iire  not  noodcd.  '  lo  great  rcfinc- 
nicMt  in  the  phicing  of  switches  nmy  result  in  ii  hrst  cost  in  excess 
of  the  saving  through  their  use.  rurtieuhirly  is  this  the  case 
where  the  factory  leceives  little  daylight,  artificial  light  lieing  re- 
quired at  all  times.  Here,  if  the  nuiid>er  of  workmen  is  great, 
practically  all  the  lamps  will  be  needed  all  the  time,  and  too 
great  refinement  in  switdi  control  is  not  warniiited  In  prac- 
tice, how(  ver,  it  will  usually  he  found  advisable  'Mstall  a 
considerable  rnimber  of  sAvitches,  as  their  cost  is  '  ■  in  com- 
parison with  that  of  the  energy  saved  by  the  ability  to  iwn  off 
the  lamps  in  sections  when  not  needed. 

Placing  of  Switches. — One  item  of  considerable  importance  in 
large  installations  is  the  plac"ng  of  switches  at  uniform  places; 
tliat  is,  if  located  on  colun;-:  ,  the  switches  should  be  placed 


Fig.  l.!.").  —Typical  working  plan  for  wircmen. 

on  the  same  relative  side  of  each,  and  on  columns  located  oi  e 
san  c  side  of  the  aisle.  A  fairly  safe  rule  is  to  coiitn  I  the  la  ..j.s 
in  rows  or  groups  parallel  to  the  windows  or  skj''vhu-.  This 
will  he  evident  by  reference  to  Fig.  13"),  where  the  -  vitching  is 
indicated  by  numerals  adjacent  to  ea«..  ; -mp.  T;.i  =  ,e  lamps 
away  from  the  windows  will  be  required  i..  ■  .any  cases  wl'.en  tlie 
work  nearer  the  windows  is  still  sufficiently  illuminated  by 
daylight.  If  lamps  are  controlled  in  rows  perpendicular  to  the 
windows,  all  units  in  a  row  will  necessarily  be  on  at  one  time, 
when  often  only  a  portion  is  needed. 

The  Working  Drawing. — A  complete  self-contained  working 
diawing  of  the  proposed  arrangement  of  lamps  will  contribute 
to  the  ease  of  installing  a  lighting  system  throughout  a  factory. 
Such  a  drawing  should  be  intelligible  to  the  average  wircman. 
It  should  give  the  uuiiine  of  the  floor  space  to  be  lighted  and 


272     EXGlNEEIiING  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


slioiild  dosi};nato  the  lipht  units  in  some  clour  and  distinctive 
fiirni,  lilt  atcd  to  scale  as  in  Fig.  121,  a  typical  working  drawing 
tiiat  has  luH'ii  found  to  give  satisfaction  in  its  details.  This 
drawing  gives  the  dimensions  of  the  floor  space,  distance  between 
lamjjs  and  tlie  distances  between  walls  and  lainj)s.  The  speci- 
fications should  contain  the  number  and  type  of  lamps,  the 
number  and  style  of  reflectors,  the  muii'oer  and  type  of  shade 
holders,  and  the  mounting  height  of  socket  above  floor.  The 
method  of  switch  control  is  i)erhaj)s  most  easily  shown  on  the 
drawing  by  jjlacing  the  same  numeral  aeljacent  to  all  lami)s  to 
be  controlled  from  a  given  switch.  It  will  be  found  advanta- 
geous to  furnish  the  maintenance  and  wiring  departments  with 
blue  prints  of  such  a  drawing. 

Maintenance  Problems. — The  foremost  item  connected  with 
the  oj)eration  of  a  factory  lighting  system  is  its  systematic 
maintenance.  To  furnish  the  l)est  results  a  lighting  sy.stem 
should  be  malntaiiunl  with  the  same  care  which  attiMuled  its 
installation.  The  factors  which  go  to  make  uj)  the  nuiiiitenancc 
include  renewals  of  incandi'scent  lamps  and  tlie  cleaning  of 
rcllectors  and  sliades. 

First  of  all,  if  tin  factory  is  sufTiciently  large  to  warrant  it, 
there  should  be  an  organized  maintcnaiu-e  department  for  looking 
after  this  work.  This  department  should  i)ossess  an  accuratu 
record  of  every  lanij)  in  tiie  factory  and  its  ty])e.  Arrangements 
sliould  b(^  made  for  carrying  in  stock  a  suflicient  supjily  of 
rc])air  parts  and  renewals.  It  is  iini>ortant  that  a  record  be 
made  of  all  such  re])airs  as  well  as  of  tiie  renewals,  together  with 
the  labor  involv(>d.  Tiu'se  reconls  will  show  the  maintenance 
cost  of  the  various  units  and  will  serve  to  indicate  if  this  expense 
is  excessive,  due  to  abnormal  conditions  in  tll(^  circuits,  in  the 
handling  of  the  lain])s  or  otherwise.  In  lamps  possessing  mech- 
anism repairs  are  necessary,  and  the  trimming  of  arc  lamps  is 
the  large  item  to  be  charged  to  a  system  in  which  they  arc  used. 

The  designing  engine(>r  may  be  o.  service  in  preventing  excess 
maintenance  by  seeing  that  the  lamps  are  so  located  that  the 
renewals  may  be  easily  made.  A  practical  instance  will  indicate 
how  the  maintenance  may  l)e  affected  by  the  method  of  installing 
the  lam]is.  In  buildings  of  open  steel  construction,  so-called 
stringe'-  boards  are  often  placed  between  girders,  as  lamp  sup- 
ports. If  these  boards  are  not  of  .suflicient  strength  to  support  a 
ladder,  renewals  and  cleaning  of  lamps  will  be  ditlicult.     The 


FACTORY  LIUHTISG 


273 


hiKhor  oxponso  foi  i)n>viiliiiK  Ixmnls  of  sufficient  size  will  ho 
offset  by  tlio  f^rcatcr  oust;  in  making  renewals,  thus  reducing  the 
niaintcnanco  exj)ense. 

Cleaning  Reflectors.— The  cleaning  of  glass  reflectors  is  an 
important  item.  Tlie  depreciation  of  the  efficiency  of  reflectors 
of  all  kinds  due  to  the  accunuilation  of  dust  and  dirt  is  large. 
The  j)r()per  time  to  clean  reflectors  is  when  the  value  of  the  light 
lost,  due  to  lUist  and  dirt  accumulations,  equals  the  labor  and 
material  cost  of  cleaning  them. 

In  order  to  realiz(>  the  best  results  from  such  a  maintenance 
dei)artment  it  is  desirable  that  all  lighting  installations  be  in- 
si)ectcd  once  a  day.  An  inspector  making  his  rounds,  should 
report  all  lamps  out  of  service,  together  with  the  number  of 
lamps  missing  or  otherwise  in  need  of  repairs.  This  information 
embodied  in  a  report  and  furnished  to  the  maintenance  depart- 
ment in  such  form  that  all  defective  lamps  can  be  located  (juickly, 
will  permit  of  prompt ly  replacing  such  lamps,  and  will  furni.sh 
at  the  same  ti  e  a  valuable  record  for  calculating  the  mainte- 
nance costs. 

Cost  Comparisons. — Cost  figures  should  not  be  permitted  to 
stand  alone,  I)ut  sIkhiUI  be  weighed  with  a  duo  consideration  of 
the  usefulness  of  the  light  as  an  invaluable  accompaniment  of 
cpiality  and  (piantity  of  work  produced  in  a  given  time.  If  the 
factory  manager  can  gain  something  of  this  attitude  to  the  light- 
ing (luestion,  viewing  the  matter  as  an  asset  to  facti  vy  produc- 
tion, and  will  study  the  kind  and  (piality  of  light  most  suitable 
to  each  condition  of  work,  better  results  may  l)c  expected  than 
when  all  attention  is  fixed  on  slight  difTercnces  in  first  cost  or 
annual  charges. 

Certain  illu.>iination  data,  which  has  been  taken  from  actual 
installat  inns  in  :i  factory,  is  shown  in  Table  XXIII.  The  informa- 
tion contained  in  this  table  is  not  intended  to  serve  as  a  rule  for 
factor}  work  in  general,  but  may  be  ii-ed  as  a  guide  in  other 
locations  where  the  ceiling  heights  correspond  and  where  sur- 
roundings are  comparable. 


18 


274     EXaiSEKIilXG  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


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FACTORY  LIGHTING 


275 


A    TVPICAI-    Fa(  TOKY    LuiiriIN(i    PliOHLKM 

As  a  typical  example  of  factory  lighting  in  -whirh  many  api)li- 
ciition.s  of  tlio  i)iiii(iples  ])roviouwly  stated  arc  in  evidence,  a 
factory  Ijuildinj;  will  lie  consitlercd  ■which  contains  more  than 
22"), ()()()  sq.  ft.  of  flof)r  space  and  in  which  over  .'iOOO  tunjisten 
lamjjs  have  recently  been  installed.  This  Iniiklin"',  a  plan  of 
which  is  shown  in  Fi<i.  13G,  consists  of  eipht  lloors,  mostly  devoted 
to  the  manufacture  of  small  m'M'hine  parts.  Tlic  walls  arc 
li,uht  in  color  and  the  buildinfj  has  the  advantajre  of  a  lijjht  ceil- 
ii.,^.     The  heifiht  from  floor  to  ceiling  is  13  ft.  0  in.  and  the  build- 


::::Mjd 


:ir: 


'KET 


-liUJJJJJ-LEiLllIL;.. 


JZZfeJlU 


I'lc.   l.'Ui. — Arniiigemont  of  lamps.     One  floor  of  factorj'  l)uil(liiig. 

in.ii  is  divided  into  bays  of  1(1  by  70  ft.  The  work  may  be  classi- 
fied into  Ix'ncli  work,  retiuiring  in  many  cases  pood  illumination 
on  vertical  surfaces;  machining  work,  where  line  shafting  and 
belting  form  an  obstruction  to  the  light;  assembly  work,  often 
performed  on  the  floor  where  illumination  on  the  liorizontal, 
inclined  and  vertical  surfaces  is  imperative;  and  a  storage  ware- 
house, where  low  intensity  is  suffi(  lent. 

The  ceilings  are  of  wootl  and  hence  wooden  moulding  was 
advantageouslv  used.  Switches  were  ])laced  on  central  col- 
umns, on  the  same  side  of  the  aisle  throughout  and  on  the 
i;ame  relative  side  of  each  column  wherever  possible.  In  feed- 
ing the  switches,  iron  coniluit  was  run  down  the  cement  columns, 
and  iron  outlet  Ijoxes  served  the  doidde  purpose  of  supports  for 
the  snap  switches  and  of  wall  icceptacles  as  outlets  for  extension 
lines  when  recjuired. 

Lighting  Requirements. — The  requirements  for  the  lighting 
in  this  building  may  be  enumerated  as  follows: 

1.  Suflicient   g(>neral   illumination  for  all  ordinary  j)ur])oses. 

2.  Intensities  of  illumimition  higher  in  some  lucations  than 

others. 

3.  lligiur  intensities  |)redomiuating  on  horizontal  surfaces  in 

certain  sections. 


270    K.\(;i\i:i:L'r.\<!  of  siioi's  axd  factouies 


4.  SufTiricntly  liifili  iiitonsitics  on  vortical  surfaces. 

o.   (Ilaio  ivihici'il  to  nuiiiimiin. 

One  of  tlie  voiy  trviiij;  conditions  was  that  of  proviilinj;  ^•uf^l- 
cicnt  ilhiiniiiation  for  tlic  classes  of  work  wlicrc  varied  inten- 
sities were  necessary,  nnd  at  the  same  time  maintain  aiiniforinity 
of  installation  and  (iistriluition  of  illumination,  so  that  work 
could  be  iloiie  with  eciual  ease  at  any  portion  of  the  floor  si)ace. 
This  feature  was  taken  care  of  by  providinji  outlets  with  standard 
spacinjrs  all  over  the  liuiidinj;  except  in  the  warehouse  and 
storerooms,  and  by  varying  the  intensity  where  necessary  l)y  a 
chaiifie  in  the  size  of  the  lamps.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  is  an 
excellent  feature  of  a  distrilmted  system  of  li^htin<;,  since  a 
chanjie  in  the  size  of  the  lamps  and  reflectors  in  no  way  chan<;es 
tlie  uniformity  or  the  distribution  characteristics  of  the  result- 
in<r  illumination. 

Experiments  and  Steps  Leading  to  Final  Arrangement. — As  a 
first  step  several  bays  on  one  of  the  floors  were  e(iuipi)e(l  with 
lOO-watt  tunfrsten  lamps  s!)aced  8  ft.  apart  and  2  ft.  0  in.  from 
walks,  the  lamps  beiny;  mounted  at  tlie  ceiling.  This  size  of 
lamp  seemed  best  adaptea  to  the  ceiling  height,  and  the  size  of 
bay  was  not  only  very  suital)lo  f  >r  this  spacing  (since  eighteen 
Limps  tilled  one  bay)  but  the  arrangement  was  symmetrical 
with  respect  to  the  bay  itsv'lf.  The  ratio  of  spacing  distance  to 
mounting  Jieight  calK^d  for  concentrating  reflectors,  which  were 
installed  along  witii  bowl-frosted  lamps.  Several  adjoining  l)ays 
were  ei|uip])ed  witii  lamps  of  the  same  size  l)ut  witii  clitTerent 
types  (if  relh'ctors,  botii  glass  and  metal.  These  trial  l)ays  were 
left  in  servile  for  s(>\-eial  months  so  that  the  opinions  of  all  con- 
cerned, including;  tiie  workmen,  could  be  obtained,  and  also  for 
the  purjiose  of  making  tests  and  noting  the  efTect  of  dust  and 
dirt  on  each  type  of  refUctor.  Six  lamjis  were  controlled  per 
switch,  thus  re(|uiring  three  switches  per  bay,  all  three  switches 
being  mountetl  on  one  column.  A  trial  was  also  made  of  several 
liays  with  l)are  lanijjs  to  note  whether  the  resulting  illuniiiuiticm 
was  noticeiibly  less  than  that  with  reflectors.  It  was  thought 
that  tlie  shielding  efTect  of  the  girders  might  serve  as  a  sufli- 
cient  i)rotection  foi-  the  eyes  of  the  workmen  without  the  addi- 
tion of  shades  or  icllectors.  I'lntherniore,  various  mounting 
licights  and  various  shapes  of  reflectors  were  tried  for  the  pur- 
pose of  investigating  the  i)roportiiuuite  relation  of  downward 
and  side  light.     The  same  procedure  was  also  tried  with  other 


i  ACTOR Y  LICHTiya 


277 


sizes  of  lamps  and  reflectors  so  as  to  ileterniino  whctlier  the  size 
nominally  selected  was  most  suitable  ft)r  the  purpose. 

Notes  on  Final  Arrangement. — The  main  results  from  these 
experiments,  eoveriiifi  several  montiis,  were  as  follows: 

1.  Size  of  Lamps. — The  lOO-watt  lami)s  seemed  the  best 
averajre  size,  but  at  least  two  intensities  were  foimd  advi-^able, 
one  somewhat  hifih  for  iletail  and  machine  work,  and  a  lower 
intensity  for  assembly  work. 

2.  Mounting  Height. — Of  the  various  mount  inj;  heifihts  tried, 
it  was  found  very  desirable  to  mount  tin-  lamps  as  close  to  the 
ceiliiifi  as  possible,  so  that  glare  was  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

3.  Number  of  Lamps  per  Bay. — The  general  scheme  of  instal- 
ling eighteen  lamps  per  bay  seemed  best. 

4.  Arrangement  of  Switches.  Tlie  switching  of  six  lamps  per 
circuit,  while  possessing  some  good  features,  did  not  seem  a 
sufficient  sub-division.  At  times,  the  work  directly  next  to 
windows  was  sufficiently  lighted  by  daylight,  while  the  work 
under  the  second  row  of  lamps  was  not.  This  led  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  lamps  next  to  the  windows  in  each  bay  should  be 
on  one  switch,  and  four  lamps  per  switch  in  general  seemed  a 
better  arrangement  than  six. 

").  Depreciation  Due  to  Dust. — It  was  found  after  several 
months  of  service,  during  which  time  the  reflectors  were  allowed 
to  remain  uncleaned,  that  tests  on  each  "f  the  reflectors  before 
and  after  cleaning  indicatetl  about  the  same  degiee  of  reductiou 
in  efficiency.  It  was  noted,  however,  that  reflectors  located 
near  belting  Ijecamc  covered  with  dirt  in  very  nun  h  less  time 
than  when  the  lamps  were  in  a  clear  ojjcn  space. 

G.  Intensity  of  Illumination  on  Other  than  Horizontal  Surfaces. 
— While  the  ratio  of  sjjacing  distance  to  mountinj-  heiuht  of  the 
lamjjs  called  for  a  concentrating  reflector  for  prcn'.  .cing  uniform 
downward  light,  a  distributing  reflector  was  essential  to  provide 
side  light.  An  intensity  of  about  two  foot-candles  on  the  sides 
of  machines  seemed  to  be  sufficient,  lor  reasons  previously 
stated,  in  certain  portions  of  the  building  the  reduced  intensities 
of  the  illumiration  on  the  lu)rizontal  surfaces,  owing  to  distribut- 
ing reflector  <  being  usetl,  which  vlirectcd  a.  larger  proportion  of 
the  light  uj)on  tiie  vertical  svii^faces,  was  made  up  by  the  use  of 
higher  cantUe-power  lamps  than  originally  contemplated. 

7.  Bowl-frosted  versus  Clear  Lamps. — Bowl-frosted  lamps 
proved  not  so  desirable  as  clear  lamps,  due  to  the  more  rapid 


27S    E\(;iM-:i:i{iXG  of  shops  and  factories 


ctTcct  of  (lust  and  diit  uii  llic  frustiri;;.  This  oflect  Ls,  of  course, 
paiticuhuly  UDticoalile  iu  factory  work. 

S.  Metal  versus  Glass  Reflectors.— Metal  reflectors  in  these 
locations  were  far  inferior  to  j;lass  liecaus*;  no  ]i<;lit  passers  throu^rh 
tliein.  (.Ilass  redectors,  on  tiie  otiier  lian<I,  permit  sonic  of  tlu; 
lijilit  to  ])ass  throujjh  the  reflectors,  wiiich  in  turn  is  reflected 
from  the  lijilit  ceilinj;  and  walls. 

9.  Advantages  of  Reflectors. — Lamps  without  refl<>ctors  were 
deharred  on  account  of  the  j;lare  which  resulted  when  a  man 
looked  up  from  liis  work  and  furtln'r,  since  (i'J  i)er  cent,  more 
illufiination  was  delivered,  on  th  working  surfaces  \)\  lani])3 
ecjuipped  with  reflectors  than  witli  hare  lamps  of  the  same  size. 
It  was  considered  a  good  investment  from  these  two  im])ortant 
standpoints,  to  i)rovide  all  lamps  with  the  mosf  efficient  reflec- 
tors available,  conclusive  tests  showing  very  clearly  that  cheap 
ones  rarely  justify  their  cost. 

Some  Comments  on  This  System. — This  tungsten  lighting  sys- 
tem has  now  ])een  in  s(>rvice  long  enough  to  indicate  that  for  a 
majority  of  the  work  in  this  building,  the  illumiiuition  facilities 
are  unusually  satisfact.>ry.  Experts  have  viewed  this  lighting 
arrangement  and  have  expressed  the  opinion  that  this  particu- 
lai-  factory  is  one  of  the  l)est  lighteil  buildings  in  the  country, 
lii'inging  out  many  valuable  ])oints  inrect^nt  iiluminatingengin'  r- 
ing  ])ractice.  A  gi-eat  many  individual  lamps  were  visi>d  i)re\  ious 
to  the  new  lighting  system,  ami  it  was  thought  by  woi'keis  and 
foremen  tliat  these  lamps  would  have  to  be  left  in  rervice  not- 
withstanding the  new  overhead  lighting  installation;  jjractically 
all  individual  lamps  were  taken  out,  however,  with  the  under- 
standing that  they  would  be  put  back  after  several  weeks  if 
found  necessary.  The  object  has  Ijeen  to  give  a  sufficiency  of 
light  to  every  workman,  ard  it  was  found  that  a  very  nuich  less 
number  of  indivi(lual  lami)s  v. vre  called  for  than  were  fmnierly 
thought  to  be  necessary.  Here  and  there  a  didp  lamp  has  been 
installed  to  take  care  of  some  special  work  re(|uiiing  light  at  an 
umisual  angle  or  of  more  than  ordinary  intensity;  but  as  an 
evidence  of  the  acceptabilit}-  of  tlie  new  light,  it  may  be  stated 
that  during  the  pa~t  winter  since  the  new  system  has  been 
installed,  the  complaints  and  calls  for  changes  in  the  wiring  have 
been  negligible,  comi'..ued  to  the  extreme  number  of  similar  com- 
plaints during  the  preceding  winter  when  u  system  of  inferior 


Fia.  137. — Shop  interior  lighting. 


FiQ.  138. — Shop  interior,  well  lirthted. 


2so    I':.\(;im:i:ui.\<i  of  shops  asd  factoiuks 


ligliting  was  in  service.     This  fact  in  itself  is  an  unquestionable 
recuniniendatiun  of  the  new  lij;iiting  system. 

One  point  of  interest  in  connection  with  tliis  ligliting  installa- 
tion is  that  the  final  arrangement  was  the  outcome  of  experience 
rather  than  precU'tiTiuination.  Months  of  careful  investigation 
and  trial  were  made  of  tlie  various  schemes  as  indicated  in  the 
)>i'eceding  notes,  and  the  completed  work  was  chosen,  on  a 
basis  not  •)nly  of  tiiese  tests,  but  also  on  the  opinions  of  those 
who  were  to  work  under  the  lighting.  Theory  and  fornuda  give 
a  general  basis,  but  often  fail  to  take  account  of  certain  jjrac- 
tical  c()nditit)ns.  For  example,  the  reflection  from  ceilings  and 
walls;  the  color  of  machinery  or  materials;  the  need  for  numerous 
lamps  of  smaller  si/e  to  prevent  shadows  which  are  unavoidable 
with  high  candle  power  units,  and  the  allowance  to  be  made  for 
dust  and  dirt  on  lamps  and  reflectors,  are  points  which  show 
why  many  things  nuist  be  ctttisidered,  aside  from  the  mere  area 
to  be  lighted,  if  satisfactory  results  are  to  be  assured. 


CIIAPTKll  xxiir 
DRAINAGE  OF  INDUSTRIAL  WORKS' 

The  drainafic  of  industrial  plants  may  intlude  not  only  the 
drainage  of  the  individual  buildings,  but  the  arianjiinji  and 
layinji  of  a  complete  system  of  sewers,  the  importaiue  of  the 
latter  being  proportionate  to  the  whole  undertaking.  As  so 
nuiny  manufacturers  are  now  erecting  new  works  on  suburban 
or  rural  sites,  wliere  al)undant  oi)portunity  exists  for  expansion, 
the  importance  of  drainage  is  increased.  In  such  cases,  tlio 
laying  out  of  a  sewerage  system  dilTers  liut  little  from  that  for  a 
small  town  or  village,  and  this  condition  is  assumed  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages. 

The  science  of  sanitary  enginecrmg  is  of  late  origin,  for  not 
until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  did  the  people  fully 
realize  that  their  lives  were,  to  a  great  extent,  in  their  own  hands, 
and  that  many,  if  not  the  majority  of  deaths  might  be  avoided. 
The  application  of  sanitary  drain:. ge  to  manufacturing  plants  is 
still  more  recent,  for  most  of  the  old  style  factories  had  oidy  the 
crudest  accommodations  in  this  respect. 

In  this  connection  one  writer  says,  "If  the  air  is  vitiated, 
water  rendered  iini)ure,  or  food  improper  or  insufhcient,  the 
body  is  robbed  of  life-giving  elements  and  soon  succumbs  to 
disease  and  deatli.  It  is  the  true  aim  of  the  sanitary  engineer 
to  assist  nature  in  her  great  but  simple  operations  to  facilitate 
the  purification  of  air,  to  i)revcnt  dangerous  impurities  entering 
our  supplies  of  water,  to  furnish  an  abundance  of  tiiese  life-giving 
elements,  and  to  remove  as  speedily  as  possible  before  .lecom])osi- 
tion  commences  all  those  matters  eliminated  from  animal 
bodies,  together  with  all  decomposing  refuse." 

The  study  of  sanitary  drainage  is  essentially  one  of  life, 
for  health  and  longevity  are  natural,  while  disease  is  abnormal, 
death,  except  from  old  age,  is  accidental,  and  both  are  to  a  large 
extent  preventable  by  human  agencies.  But  no  sooner  do 
human  bein/s  begin  to  live  and  work  in  one  place,  than  danger 

'  H.  G.  Tyrrell,  in  Municipal  Journal  and  Engineer,  May,  1901. 

281 


L'sj    EsaisEKiiisa  OF  siiors  .i.v/)  factories 

from  (lcc-onii)()sinn  refuse  l.eniiis.  As  hainlets  iiicreiise  U>  villanos, 
1111(1  these  again  to  towns  ami  cities  with  tlie  many  ami  ciowdeil 
workshops,  the  danger  heeomes  greater.  Heme  from  the  first 
it  is  important  th;  '  the  greatest  attention  siioukl  l>e  given  to 
tlie  drainage  of  the  plai'e. 

During  twenty-two  years  of  eontinuoiis  war  on  the  continent, 
I'.ngland  sustained  a  "loss  of  7'.),()(K)  men.  but  in  one  year  <.f 
eh.ilera  her  loss  was  144,000.  In  the  Hriti.sh  army  before  8ani- 
lary  improvements  had  been  installed,  the  death  rate  was  one  in 
forty-two,  with  two  sick  men  out  of  every  five  picked  and  able- 
bu.iied  men.  Hut  after  a  more  i)ei-fect  system  had  been  pro- 
vided, the  death  rate  was  only  one  in  one  hundred  and  forty- 
tliree,'  with  one  sick  out  of  every  twenty-one.  Epidemics  of 
disea.se  are  too  often  ascribed  to  "  an  act  of  Pn.vidence  to  whose 
ruling  all  mii.st  submit,  but  looking  with  the  eyes  of  science 
upon^thc  overflowing  cesspools  and  reeking  :ewers  as  inevitable 
causes,  and  with  the  eye  of  humanity  ui)on  the  interested  and 
inm)cent  victims  languishing  in  pain  and  peril,  or  mouldering 
in  their  shrouds,  such  implications  of  Providence,  though  per- 
haps sim'erely  nuule,  are  ne.\t  to  blasphemy,  especially  when 
uttered  by  the  agents  wlio  are  responsible,  though  the  prayer  of 
charity   might   be,   "Father  forgi%e  them  for  they  know  not 

what  they  do." 

The  Drainage  of  Buildings.— The  final  object  of  any  system 
of  sewers  however  elaborate  or  complicated,  is  the  drainage  of 
buildings.  In  order  that  this  drainage  may  be  complete,  the 
following  reiiuiici.ients  should  be  kept  in  view: 

1 .  The  foundation  .-oil  shall  be  free  fror       impness. 

2.  All   li(iuid    and    txcremental    waste   .shall    be   safely    and 
•  piickly  conveyed  oeyo.id  the  building  limits. 

:?.   A  ronstant  supply  of  pure  air  shall  be  admitted. 

4.  Nothing  shall  be' allowed  to  collect  aluiut  the  place  which 
would  taint  the  air  or  render  the  atmosphere  impure. 

.-).  Proper  arrangement  must  be  made  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  sewer  gas  through  traps  or  other  fixtures. 
The  first  of  these  reciuirc-nents,  that  the  sub.soil  be  free  from 
moisture,  is  of  great  importance.  If  a  basement  or  cellar  irf 
always  damp,  and  gases  are  continuously  rising  through  the  shops, 
it  is  "impossible  that  the  occupants  ba  hale  and  strong.  If  the 
foundation  is  of  grasel  or  sand,  no  other  drainage  is  necessary. 
But  where  elay  occurs,  as  is  usually  the  case,  a  '-'-in.  dram  all 


hA  >.^mf* 


'WPE5:jp^»»*'7m-'r'.a!irwsi»*«i»iP^     . 


DiiMs.un-:  OF  i.\i)isriii.\L  wouks 


2H:i 


„,„„,1  j,..,  insi.l.-  ,1...  wall  a.ul  ulumt  u  fu,.(  ..r  so  fmn.  i.  uill 
,„.  ,„,...UmI  Si.nilur  <....-  -iM.-l'l  1"'  Pl'''''"'  "^  'l"^"""'^'-^  "1"^'<  "f 
.,lK,ut  1.-.  ft.,  erosswis.  .,f  il.o  l...il.lin^'.  Tu  prevent  tl.o  oxhalu- 
,i.,u  of  n.oisturo  uhirh  ris...  ovcm  tl...  .hirst  s.,.1  a  .•uut  j.f  s-nu. 
i,n,,orviou.s  sul.sta.uo  s.uli  as  d.-nsv  c.unvH',  asphalt  ..r  hy.lrau- 
lic  ciMiu'iit  slu.uld  1)0  spread.  .... 

IVMhaps  tl...  most  .lilll.Mlt  of  all  \n  this  ronnorti.m  is  th,' 
„,,an.'in^'  of  piiu^s  an.l  lixtmvs  for  tl.e  n.in..val  of  wast.-.  It  t  .<• 
piiKW  aiv  of  l.-a.l  th.-lr  .luialMlily  Nvill  U'  ..'....•h  u.r.ras.Ml  l.y 
I-iviu.^  th.MU  a  thi.k  coat  of  pai.it  i.isi.l.-.  an.l  ^^l..■n  thus  pn.t.-t.Ml 
a„a  .veil  vc.ililate.1,  th.-y  slmuM  last  fnmi  tw.-.ity  to  tl.irty  y.>a.s 
In.n  pip.-s  an.  sonu.ti.n..s  us.-.l  a.ul  th.-y  are  usually  s.t..w.. 
t„.a.tlu.r,  thus  hvluii  str....«  e.i..u;:h  t..  supi...rt  th(>.r  .nvu  w.'i^ht 
with  thi.  hflp  ..f  strai.s.  Arou.i.l  th.-  joiuts  si.h.M-i..il  .■ov.;rs  an^ 
s..m.-ti.m.s  pla.'.-.l,  s.,  that  a  slifiht  scttliiij;  of  th.>  l-.l-.s  will  lu.t 
l.r.'ak  tln!  .•.yiiiiection. 

Tl...   essential   features   in   the    arrai.-...n.-nt    ..f   wat.n  h.sets, 

""l.'Kxt.'..si!.n  of  all  soil  and  waste  pip.-s  thn.Ufih,  an.l  at..,ve 

L>.  Provision  ..f  fr.-sl.-air  inl.'t  In  the  .Irain,  at  the  f.u.t  ..f  the 

soil-  an.l  \vaste-pip.>  syst.'in.  .    •   ,  . 

■5    Trapi.inj;  of  the  main  .Lain  ..utsi.le  ..f  the  fresh-a.r  inlet. 

4    Pla.inn  of  ea.'h  hxture  as  near  as  j.ossil.le  to  it,  with  a 

'  self-eleai.sin-    tfap,     safe     against     sipl...na>ie     an.l     l.aek 

-,.  iTatin's  ..f  vent  pii)es  t..  traps  un.l.T  su.^h  fixtures  as  a.e 
liable  t.>  l.e  empti<..l  by  sipli.uia^c. 

Thus  l.v  havinj;  a  ventilation  at  Imth  o.uls  of  ti.e  s..il  pipe, 
the  a.^cuinulati...!  ..f  foul  fjases  is  prevent.-.l,  ^^h..•h  w..ul.l  very 
s.M.n  d..stn.v  lea.l  pil-e.  With.-ut  this  ventilation  traps  a.-e 
alwavs  liable  t.»  be  f.-ree.l  .-r  sipli..ne.l,  .nvin-  t.)  the  f.-.-.e  ..f 
tides"  or  win.ls    at  the  m.mth  of  sewers,   or    to    a    ehanfic   of 

temperature.  .,     .      .    .        « 

While  the  fresh-air  inlet  at  the  fo..t  of  the  soil  pipe  is  lieneh- 
eial  as  a  ventilat.n-,  it  is  obm.xi..us  .m  a.'c.unt  .-f  emitting  ^as. 
Waste  pipc.s  from  sinks  shoul.l  have  traps  .mtsi.ie  the  Imil.lmK 
n..ar  tlie  wall,  to  cat.h  ..ily  matter  bi-fore  it  hardens.  Catch 
basins  may  be  made  of  brick  or  roncn>te  about  4  ft.  in  .liainet<.r, 
,vith  pii^..s  Mrrnn-e.l  t.)  siplu.n  when  the  chamber  is  f.iU.  If  the 
catching  of  grease  Is  not  the  object,  a  flush  tank  may  be  substi- 


r"-'"  :»«"^ 


i.'<jim^ 


L>si    i:\(ii.\i:i:h'i.\(!  of  s/iors  wd  iA(T(Hiii:s 

tilted.  Wlit'ii  llif  lank  is  full,  niic  iiiuif  llnw  of  watir  into  it 
Mtarts  ihc  sii>lic(ii  acliim  wliiili  ciiiiPtics  ii  iicmly  to  llio  liullom. 
Ill  aoiiii!  ia.>L's,   .sIkj's   may   1)0   disposcil   of   liy   canyinj^   tliem 


:!iili 


I'~kL,'ZV.Z','.-S.'1X.\''.IZ.1^    1     -W-^^ 


I'lii.  130. — Siiihon  tank. 

tlii'otijih  a  system  of  ])i|)es  with  o|)en  joints,  laid  underneath 
>ome  adjoiiiiii;;  farm  land  or  meadow.  Before  entering;  the 
open  drains,  tiie  walrr  passes  throii;:li  a  Ihisli  tank,  makiiiK  the 


1  I..,    1  K).  — Line  111   ua.^ll  ImAnI.J. 

discharfre  intermittent,  ami  the  flow  of  water  heimrnioro  copious, 
satiii'ates  tiie  iiround  to  a  j;reater  distance. 

Watereloscts  are  iht!  most    trouiiloome  <ii    aii   ]iiumi)iii,i;  ar- 
rangements.    It  would  bo  well  if  they  were  Luilt   t-eparate   al- 


Ti: 


1     A..'' 


toKrlli«-r  fn.ni  tlu-  iiKiiu  l>uil.lii!j:.<.  l>iit  as  this  wotiKl  to  ;>  v'i«'iit 
i-xiciit  .Ifstniy  tlu'ir  ((.nvfiiifiKf,  tlifv  may  Ik-  scparati'.l  fmm 
tlu>  sli.ip  l>y  ii  vontilatcd  lul.l)y  or  l.y  (l.jul.lf  doors,  atnl  tli.y 
hhoulil  always  liavo  outside  u  nidows.  Tho  most  approved  ar- 
nm>;eiiieiit  is  to  pluec  all  toilets  in  a  sitiglo  room  (.n  each  story,  or 
to  frroii|)  them  all  in  one  story,  usually  the  basement  or  the  upper 
floor  Fixtures  should  l.e  extra  heavy  as  they  often  jret  rou;:h 
usa^'e.  llnou-ih  wash  l.owls  U'W-  ' »"'  «'"•"'''  l'^'  l"<'vi.h-d  so 
there  \  il  !•«•  at  least  one  for  every  three  people  in  the  l.uildiii}:, 
and  not  .ess  than  one  toilet  for  every  twelve  i)ersons.  Mnamele.i 
inm  ware  is  so  much  cleaner  than  any  other,  that  it  shouhl  m- 


I'lG.  1-11. — (,'lu^tl:r  of  ahowcrs. 

varial.Iv  l.e  used,  .nid  wood  excluded.  Foundries  are  especially 
in  need  of  etlicient  wash  rooms,  and  in  some  cases,  one  bath 
room  is  provided  for  eai  h  workman.  In  .some  states,  the  law 
requires  that  foundries  shall  lur.e  shower  l.aths  (Fijr.  141)  and  full 
provision  for  the  comfort  and  cleaidines.  ^.f  operatives.  ^  These 
rooms  should  be  in  -har^e  of  an  attendant  whose  duty  it  is  to 
keep  them  clean.  The  wi.lls  and  floors  should  bo  of  cement  or 
tile,  so  a  hose  can  be  used  for  washin.n.  A  room  for  the  storafie 
of  ciothinji  should  adjoin  the  wash  room,  and  this  should  have 
individual  lockers  with  perforated  sides  for  ventilation,  metul 
ones  being  preferred. 

Watei closet  fixture.-i  (Fig.  142)  are  made  in  great  \  ariety,  and 


;^7fV#    f5r.^'.«'»^'\>,,j»:«a«s«w*agr^~»iT^K^^^  -TSFi.  <r  .iW.„ 


2S0      KXdlXKKRIXa  OF  SIIOI'S  AM)  J  ACTORIFS 


ISltWR^:^-* 


^k 


most  of  tlic  liii-fro  niiiiuifiu'tuicrs  will  forwanl  tlicir  catalojruo.s  to 
])idsp('ctive  huycrs  on  r('(iu('st.  Many  iixtures  are  niado  espe- 
cially for  factoi'N"  use,  and  as  a  (l('scii|)- 
lion  of  them  would  fill  a  wliolo  hook,  it         1 

is  iini)ossil)ic  to  oven  mention  tJie  i; 1 

points     wiiicli     are     ohtainalile.     'i'iiey  /^        ^ 

siiould  ]ia\-e  a  tijilit  valve  and  a  doulile 
water  seal,  with  water  enouiili  luidcr 
the  seat  for  immediate  disinfection. 
Many  sanitary  authorities  pi-efer  tlie 
simple  hopper  closet,  since  its  only  trap 
is  always  in  si;iht.  Where  an  inter- 
mittent water  supply  of  altout  fifti'cn 
minutes  is  pro\iiled,  it  is  i)erliaps  the 
liest.  Two  types  of  urinals  are  shown 
in  Fius  113  and  lit. 


E 
Tank  Ul  'i 


A,  inlet 
n,  outlet 
C,  seat 
V,  valve 
K,  tank 


y.--, 12' J -U 

Fig.  142. — Water-closet. 

/■',  au.xiliary  J,     thccU-valvo 

valve 
G,  inner  ch:*m-  /..    bowl 

ber 
//,  (ioat  M,    bowl  oatlct 


The  Drainage  of  Plants. — When  imildinc;  new  plants  in  rural 
or  suhurlian  places,  it  is  often  necessary  to  design  a  sewerage 


DRAINAGE  OF  INDUSTRIAL  WORKS 


287 


system  extensive  enough  to  include  not  onlj'  the  plant  itself, 
but  tlie  whole  industrial  village,  and  for  this  reason  a  discussion 
is  given  of  the  drainage  of  the  yards  and  entire  site. 

Sewers  were  originally  for  suiface  drainage  only,  and  it  was 
then  tmlawful  to  discharge  refuse  or  foul  matter  into  tiu^n.  But 
in  1847,  this  idea  seems  to  have  been  reversed,  as  an  act  of 
Parliament  made  it  compulsory  for  all  drainage  in  cities  and 
towns  in  i:ngland  to  be  discharged  into  the  public  sewers.     They 


Fig.  143. — Trough  urinals. 


must  be  of  the  proper  size  with  sufficient  fall,  and  means  should 
be  provided  for  flushing  them.  A  system  of  sewers  should  be 
perfectly  tight  from  end  to  end,  for  if  they  allow  foul  liquids 
and  gases  to  permeate  the  ground,  they  are  no  better  than 
vaults  or  cesspools. 

In  starting  to  lay  out  a  system  of  sewers  for  a  manufacturing 
plant  or  in(histrial  village,  even  though  it  is  not  intended  to 
complete  the  whole  of  it  at  first,  a  plan  should  be  made  showing 
the  final  creation,  so  that  when  it  is  ended,  the  arrangement 
will  be  in  accordance  with  the  original  design. 


2,SS     E.\(;i.\EEliIXG  OF  SHOPS  A.\D  FACTOKIES 

Tlio  fall  or  inclination  of  sowers  is  iniportant,  anil  the  following 
table  j!,ives  the  jjroper  grades  for  those  running  either  full  or 
half  full. 


Fia.  144. — Plan  of  separate  urinals. 


0-iii.  jiipos.  Onido  1  in     00 

9-in.  iiipcs.  (ir!i<lo  1  in    00 

12-in.  pipes.  (Irailc  1  in  200 

ir)-in.  pipes,  (irade  1  in  2.")0 

IS-in.  pipes.  (Irade  1  in  .'fOO 

21-in.  pipes.  (Jnide  1  in  4(H) 

30-in.  pipt>.s.  Onule  1  in  ">0() 

.•?(>-iii.  pipes,  fJr.tde  1  in  TOO 

48-in.  pipes.  Grade  1  in  SCO 


Mt\ 


DRAINAGE  OF  INDUSTRIAL  WORKS 


289 


\VlH>n  llic  diroction  cliangcs,  the  friction  increases  and  the  fall 
must  be  ftrcator.  The  most  rapiil  fall  should  be  given  at  tlie 
upper  end  of  the  sewer  where  the  quantity  of  water  is  least  and 
conseciuently  wliere  the  velocity  is  needed  to  start  the  flow. 
Instances  are  known  in  which  inaccuracies  of  1/lG  to  1/8  in. 
in  the  grade  of  sewers  rendered  them  inefficient  and  necessitated 
their  removal,  but  in  such  cases  the  inclination  was  very  small, 
not  exceeding;  7  or  8  in.  per  mile. 

If  the  amount  of  water  flowing  is  proportional  to  the  size  of 
the  conduit,  sewers  of  different  sizes  give  the  same  velocity  at 
different  inclinations.  For  example,  a  10-ft.  sewer  with  a  fall 
of  2  ft.  per  mile;  a  5-ft.  with  a  fall  of  4  ft.  per  mile;  a  2-ft.  with  a 
fall  of  10  ft.  per  mile;  and  a  1-ft.  with  a  fall  of  20  ft.  per  mile, 
will  all  have  the  same  velocity,  but  the  10-ft.  sewer  will  recpiire 
100  times  as  much  sewage  as  will  the  1-ft.  sewer  and  unless  it 
carries  a  volume  of  water  proportional  to  its  capacity,  the 
velocitj^  of  its  stream  will  be  correspondingly  lessened.  It 
becomes,  therefore,  especially  important  that  the  size  of  the 
conduit  be  adjusted  to  the  volume  of  the  stream.  When  half 
full  and  when  full,  the  velocity  is  the  same,  and  when  a  little 
more  than  three-cpuirters  full  the  velocity  is  greatest. 

In  determining  the  size  of  a  sewer  it  is  necessary  to  consider 
not  only  its  fall,  but  also  the  amount  of  rainfall  and  sewage 
which  it  must  carry  away.  The  commonest  of  all  defects  is 
that  expensive  one  of  being  too  large.  It  is  much  better  to  have 
occasional  repair  after  excessive  rainfalls,  thnn  to  provide  for 
extraordinary  ones.  The  invariable  result  vri  .naking  a  sewer 
too  large  is  that  sediment  forms  in  the  bottom  and  before  long 
it  is  doggeil  with  filth,  or  only  a  small  orifice  remains  large 
enough  for  the  ordinary  flow.  Whereas,  had  the  sewer  lieen  of 
proper  size  at  first,  it  would  by  its  own  flow,  have  In^n  kept 
clean,  and  would  have  received  a  much  greater  rainfall  than  the 
larger  but  choked  sewer. 

In  small  towns  and  villages  it  is  not  usual  to  allow  for  a  greater 
precipitation  than  \  in.  per  hour,  but  in  cities  where  the  area 
is  mostly  built  over,  and  water  can  more  easily  find  its  way  to 
the  sewers,  a  fall  of  i  in.  per  hour  is  allowed.  Even  in  popu- 
lous towns  and  cities  a  considerable  quantity  of  water  will  not 
reach  the  sewer  but  will  soak  into  the  ground  or  evaporate. 
Assuming  that  a  fall  of  i  in.  per  hour  reaches  the  sewer,  thia 


19 


200     KSaiXEEItlXG  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


is  provulinfi  for  ii  nuicli  heavier  fall,  probably  a  total  of  about 
1  in.,  the  average  anioiint  of  sewajic  in  a  town  with  water  sui)iily 
is  about  L'.")  Kiill""^  f'"'  ciivh  jjernon  per  day,  half  of  which  will 
be  discharjicil  between  !)  A.  M.  and  o  P.  M. 

As  a  stream  Hows  on,  its  velocity  will  increase,  and  conse- 
quently its  volume  will  diminish.  Therefore,  a  pipe  running  full 
at  its  upper  end,  may  receive  a  large  quantity  more  during  it.s 
course.  .V  street  in  London  has  a  brick  sewer  oj  ft.  high  and 
3J  ft.  wide  with  a  12-in.  pipe  laid  along  the  bottom  for  a  dis- 
tance of  ")»■)()  ft .  This  was  never  known  to  be  choked,  and  during 
storms,  stones  could  be  heard  rolling  along  the  bottom.  This 
l)i])e  is  rarely  more  than  half  full  at  the  head.  The  cross-sectional 
area  of  all  the  drains  entering  it  is  eciual  to  that  of  a  pipe  30  ft. 
in  diameter.  Although  the  12-in.  pipe  is  always  clean,  the 
large  brick  sewer  is  constantly  collecting  deposits  of  filth,  20  or 
30  ft.  from  where  the  small  one  joins  it,  which  deposit  must  be 
removed  by  expensive  hand  labor.  Instances  have  fre(iuently 
occurred  where  workmen,  by  mistake,  have  put  in  pipe  as  sewers, 
which  the  architect  intended  for  a  single  building,  and  the  re- 
sidt  has  been  that  they  were  always  clean  and  served  their  pur- 
pose well. 

The  round  sewer,  as  a  general  rule,  is  the  best.  With  it, 
good  joints  can  always  l)e  made  by  turning  the  best  fitting  parts 
to  the  bottom,  and  they  have  the  greatest  area  for  their  perim- 
eter. The  pipes  should  always  be  hard  and  smooth,  for  if 
at  all  porous,  they  contaminate  the  adjoining  ground,  and  are 
more  subject  to  frost,  and  to  the  destroying  action  of  sewer  gases. 
If  there  is  danger  from  roots  of  trees,  it  is  advisable  to  lay  the 
pipe  in  cement.  Where  the  supply  of  sewage  is  very  intermit- 
tent, an  egg-shaped  sewer  is  sometimes  preferred,  because 
when  the  stream  l)ecomes  very  shallow,  it  is  also  narrow,  so  that 
setliment  is  not  likely  to  collect.  This  shape  of  sewer  is  usually 
made  of  brick,  and  is  m<u-e  e\i)ensive  than  pipe. 

Ventilation  of  Sewers. — One  writer  described  the  danger  of 
imventilated  .sewers  as  being  greater  than  that  of  a  steam  engine 
without  a  safety  valve,  for  while  in  the  latter  case,  the  lives  of 
only  a  few  are  exjMJsed,  in  the  former,  the  health  and  life  of  the 
whole  community  is  at  stake.  As  temperat\ire  changes,  tides 
rise  and  fall,  or  the  force  of  the  wind  at  the  mouth  of  the  sewer 
varies,  the  pressure  of  tlie  conlouMi  gases  is  also  changed,  and 
since  the  amount  of  water  in  ord!..ary  traps  is  small,  they  will 


DRAIXAGE  OF  INDUSTRIAL  WORKS 


2«Jl 


prohiil)ly  1)0  foired  or  siplionod.  If  siplionod,  :i  dirfM't  coimmini- 
cation  for  tlu!  cntiaiicc  of  poisonous  f;as('s  will  I'C  {■stal)lish('d 
l)C't\v('('ii  the  public  sinvcr  and  tlu>  huildiiifr.  licsidv-s,  if  means  Ix; 
provided  for  a  free  passajic  of  air  tiirou.uli  tiic  sewer;  'ho  same 
amount  of  jjas  will  not  l>e  jienerated,  for  nuuli  of  the  foul  mutter 
in  a  short  time  becomes  oxidized. 

\'entilation  by  means  of  water  j)ipes  to  the  eaves  of  build- 
injfs  has  been  advocated,  Init  this  method  is  faulty,  in  that  dur- 
ing; heavy  rains  when  most  needed,  the  i)ii)e.s  aro  choked  with  a, 
flow  of  water.  Most  authoiities  on  sanitation  have  decided  that, 
the  best  sewer  ventilators  yet  used,  are  manholes  c<}verod  with 
iron  firatiiifis,  emerjiiiif!;  in  the  center  of  the  street.  The  char- 
coal ventilator  has  also  been  used  with  success,  for  in  a  city  of 
Knjiland  where  more  than  .")00  of  these  ventilators  were  installed, 
the  total  yearly  e.\i)eiiso  was  less  SI. J.")  for  each.  'Jhe  arrange- 
ment consists  of  a  special  tray  covered  Avith  charcoal  set  in  the 
ventilator  so  that  all  fiases  siscending  are  forced  to  pass  either 
througli  or  o\er  the  charcoal.  When  it  is  rcniiMnbered  that  1 
in.  of  charcoal  contains  as  much  interior  surface  as  100  sq.  ft., 
an  idea  can  be  formed  of  its  power  as  a  disinfectant.  Around 
the  special  tray  is  a  box  for  catching  aiiy  rainfall  or  dust  which 
may  find  its  way  through  the  inm  grating.  These  ventilators 
in  order  to  give  thonmgh  satisfaction,  shoidd  be  placed  every 
JOO  or  ;JUO  yd.  apart  in  the  sewer.  They  should  not  branch  off 
directly  from  the  sewer,  but  should  rise  from  a  camber  of  about 
a  foot,  so  that  passing  gases  will  be  lead  to  the  outlet.  When  the 
street  incline  is  great,  a  light  hanging  valve  maj'  be  placed  above 
each  ventilator.  Thi.s  will  not  ol)suuct  the  flow  of  sewage,  but 
it  will  prevent  gases  rising  to  the  higher  part  of  the  system,  and 
cscapiTig  all  from  one  ])lace  or  through  a  few  ventilators. 

In  the  city  of  Wiiui.-ur,  Kngland,  in  I80O,  a  case  of  typhoid 
fever  was  discovered.  From  lack  oi  proper  sewer  ventilation, 
the  foul  and  poisonous  gases  from  the  fecal  matter  f)f  this  one 
patient,  ri.sing  through  forced  and  siplionod  traps,  caused  the 
death  of  no  less  than  4,')0  other  persons,  all  of  whose  houses  with- 
out exception  wore  connected  with  this  sower.  Windsor  Cas- 
tle, having  its  own  drain,  escaped.  In  another  city,  the  break- 
ing out  of  typhoid  fevt :  in  the  higher  parts  of  the  town  while  the 
lower  portions  roiiiainod  untouched  was  considered  a  mystery 
until  it  was  found  tiiat  the  sewers  not  lieing  properly  arranged 
ed  the  poisonous  gases  to  'iso  to  the  liigher  parts  of  the 


!»2    y;.\7,7.\7;A7i'/.\7/ '     SHOPS  a.M)  factories 


pystoni,  wJioro  tliry  escaped  and  .s])roa(l  tho  fiorins  of  disoaso.  In 
tliis,  as  in  many  otlicr  cases,  tlie  coniinunity  was  stirred  to  action 
only  \>y  tlio  cruel  hand  of  pestilence. 

Flushing  of  Sewers. — When  a  system  of  sewers  is  faulty  either 
in  firado  or  in  size,  special  appliances  for  flushiuf?  should  he 
provided.  One  effective  arrangement  consists  of  an  iron  tank 
fastened  on  trunnions,  havinj;  the  hack  end  the  heavier  when 
empty.  On  lieinji  tilled  with  water  and  waste,  the  front  end 
becomes  the  lieavier  and  it  is  tilted  forward.  It  i.s  faulty  in 
one  respect,  tiuit  when  in  a  fallen  position  all  matter  issuinj; 
from  tho  sewer  above  it,  will  form  a  pile  of  filth  beneath  tho 
back  part  of  the  box.  Other  arnuifrements  such  as  dams,  etc., 
have  been  used,  l)ut  they  are  insufficient,  since  they  are  not 
self-acting  but  re(piire  constant  attention.  Another  useful 
flushiiif;  tank  for  sewers  has  a  disk  held  in  ])lacc  by  the  force  of 
the  water  covering  the  mouth  of  the  sewer  running  from  the 
manhole.  The  sewage  is  j)eriodicalIy  released  by  means  of  a 
chain  fastened  to  a  circular  block,  but  as  a  precaution,  a  float 
is  attached  to  the  chain,  so  that,  should  the  water  rise  to  that 
height,  it  woulil  lilierate  itself.  If,  however,  sewers  are  i)roperly 
arranged  in  other  respects,  they  will  re(iuire  but  little  flushing. 
During  hot  summer  niontJis  or  if  fever  is  j)revalent,  an  occasional 
cleaning  will  b<>  necessary.  The  work  should  always  be  begun 
in  the  lower  end,  so  deposits  already  there  will  not.  stop  other 
wash. 

Catch  l)asins  should  be  placed  at  the  corners  of  the  streets 
or  wliereved'  required,  for  the  purpose  of  arresting  silt  and  solid 
wash  from  the  streets.  In  these  the  iron  over  the  mou  n  of  the 
pipe  leading  to  the  sewer  is  liinged  at  the  top  and  is  cemented 
to  the  brickwork  witii  ])laster  of  Paris,  so  in  case  of  frost  the 
cement  only  will  ]>(>  broken,  wliich  can  be  easily  repaired  in  the 
spring.  Many  engineers  still  ])refer  the  method  of  conveying 
street  wash  away  in  a  separate  channel.  These  conduits  may 
be  constructed  in  the  form  of  deep  cast-iron  gutters  covered 
with  a  cast-iron  grating,  the  inner  edge  of  the  gutter  being  carried 
up  to  the  height  of  the  sidewalk.  .\s  the  accumulated  flow 
requires  greater  cross-sect ion;d  area,  it  should  be  made  in  dei)th 
rather  than  in  the  width,  which  will  assist  in  keeping  the  gutter 
clean.  The  chief  objection  to  this  method  is  that  in  the  winter 
time  the  crossings  become  coated  with  ice,  but  this  difficulty 


DRMXAdl':  OF  ISDrSTHIAL   WORKS 


293 


is  no  greater  than  that  arising  from  ico  >>n  tlie  sidewalks  and 
about  the  catch  l)at*ins. 

Pneumatic  System. — All  the  elements  liave  been  called  upon 
as  aids  in  the  drainage  of  coniinunities,  including  water,  dry 
earth  and  ashes,  and  now  the  aid  of  compressed  air  is  used  in 
removing  refuse  from  buildings.     On  account  of  its  compara- 
tively recent  discovery,  this  system  is  but  little  uscil,  but  in 
Holland  and  Austria  where  it  has  been  tried,  good  results  have 
been  obtained.     It  is  to  the  research  and  ingenuity  of  a  Dutch 
engineer    tiiat    the  world    is  indebted  for  the  discovery  of  a 
system  which  has  been  deda.ed  as  the  greatest  modern  invention 
in  sanitary  science.     It  consists  in  having  a  number  of  air-tight 
iron  reservoirs,  as  many  as  the  sL-^e  of  the  manufactory  or  village 
needs,  sunk  to  a  sufficient  depth  beneath  the  surface  to  prevent 
freezing,  to  which  are  connected  the  drains  from  the  buildings. 
These  iron  chambers  at  certain  intervals  are  exhausted  of  their 
air,  so  that  when  valves  connecting  with  the  tlrains  are  opei 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  forces  everything  from  the  pipes 
down  into  the  central  reservoir.     If  these  pipes  arc  numerous, 
tney  may  all,  in  the  same  way,  be  emptied  by  a  similar  process 
into  one  central  and  final  vault.     The  chief  difficulty  that  pre- 
sented itself  in  this  undertaking  was  that  some  pipes  would  be 
emptied  before  the  others,  in  which  case  the  air,  finding  easy 
access  through  the  empty  drains,  would  no  longer  affect  those 
which  were  still  full.     But  the  difficulty  was  overcome  by  apply- 
ing the  principle  of  equal  barometric  pressure.     Before  entering 
the  main,  each  building  drain,  has  a  break  or  abrupt  change  in 
elevation  of  say,  exactly  1  ft.     If  one  building  drain  discharges 
a  large  quantity  daily  and  another  supplies  only  a  small  quan- 
tity of  sewage,  then  if  the  air  be  extracted  from  the  main  so 
atmospheric  pressure  acts  in  both  drains,  the  liquid  in  the  first 
will  descend  before  that  in  the  second  begins  to  move.     Then 
when  they  have  both  reached  the  same  point,  the  liquid  in  both 
will  flow  out  together.     In  the  same  way,  no  matter  how  great 
the  number  of   drains,  they  will  all   be  emptied  at   the  same 
instant. 

The  closets  were  originally  simple  iron  hoppers,  placed  where 
possible  one  above  another,  so  the  fall  was  nearly  straight. 
But  other  kinds  may  be  used  eciually  well,  provided  a  large  size 
ventilation  pipe  passes  up  through  the  roof  by  which  the  atmos- 


2'.vt    K.\<ii.\i:i-:i{r\<;  of  shops  asd  factories 


plicic  may  exert  its  full  prcssiiro  on  the  liquid  in  the  drain.  As 
the  sewajio  ut  the  final  depot  is  run  lliroUKJi  sieves,  and  evapor- 
ated for  use  a.s  fertilizer,  the  street  wash  and  thin  slojjs  are 
usually  conveyed  by  a  sejjarate  set  of  pipes  into  a  lake  or 
t^treani. 

The  chief  advantage  of  this  method  al)ov(>  others  is  that  it 
returns  to  the  soil  that  w'lich  is  taken  from  it.  and  also  the  in- 
come from  the  sale  of  the  product  soon  pays  for  the  extra  cost 
of  construction. 

Conservation  of  Sewage.  "The  ear^h,  given  by  the  Creator  to 
man,  was  intended  not  as  a  store  house  to  be  pillajied,  but  to  1)0 
judiciously  used.  With  the  water  .system,  refuse  run  into  the 
lakes  t)r  ocean  is  lost,  as  far  as  the  i)resent  era  of  the  world  is 
concerned.  If  year  after  yaw  and  jieneration  after  <;eneration 
the  nourishinj;  properties  are  extrucied  from  the  soil,  the  inevi- 
table result  must  be  impoverishment.  A  city  of  100. ()()()  inhab- 
itants has  a  yearly  provision  supply  of  al)out  100.000,000  lb. 
which  is  all  turned  into  the  .sewers  and  lost.  This  would  produce 
annually  about  ,")000  tons  of  dried  excrement.  The  yearly 
amount  of  excrement  from  an  averajre  inh.ibitant  is  ."j(i  lb.,  the 
amount  of  orjianic  matter  in  .solid  dried  excrement  bein<;  88  per 
cent,  and  in  urine,  \\  per  cent.  Hut  the  total  daily  amount  of 
or>;anic  matter  from  the  latter  is  about  one-third  more  than 
from  the  former.  Rememberinf^  that  five-sixths  of  the  ain- 
mr)nia  capable  of  being  generated  from  human  excreta  is  fur- 
nished by  the  urine  and  only  one-fifth  by  the  feces,  and  how 
small  is  (he  j)roportion  of  the  total  urine  ])assed  at  the  same  time, 
and  that  it  is  impossible  to  collect  all  the  latter,  the  intrinsic 
value  of  tiie  fertilizing  matter  which  can  be  jjractically  recovered 
is  probablv  not  more  than  one-third  the  value,  or  amounts  to 
7.")  cents  per  annum  for  each  i)erson.  taking  tlie  usually  accepted 
value  of  excreta  fiom  an  average  person  as  .S2.2.")  per  yv,\:\ 

Hy  ilischarging  its  sewage  into  a  lake  or  waterway,  a  city  of 
100,000  loses  annually  no  less  than  i?70,000.  Assuming'the 
present  population  of  the  i:nited  States  to  be  KO.OOO.OOO, 
the  nation  loses  annually  from  this  waste  $00,000,000  to 
§70.000,000. 

Final  Disposal  of  Sewage.— Thi.-;  is,  perhaps,  of  all  problems  in 
sanitary  science,  the  most  difficult.  Attempts  have  l)een  made 
to  dispose  of  .sewage  by  irrigation,  ignition,  etc.,  but  no  com- 
plete and  satisfactory  method  seems  to  liave  been  devised.     For 


DRAIN A(IK  OF  INDUSTRIAL  WORKS 


293 


Hmall  manufacturing;  plants  or  industrial  villajics  and  for  Hinplc 
factory  l>uildinjis  tlie  pn)l)leni  is  comparatively  wimple,  hut  in 
larfie  centers  where  the  (piantity  of  solid  and  lltjuid  refuse  is 
great,  it  is  much  more  comjjlicated.  Sewers  cannot  discharge 
into  a  lake  in  the  vicinity  of  water  works  or  intake,  neither  should 
they  run  into  a  stream  from  which  a  few  miles  further  down 
another  manufactory  or  village  derives  its  supply  of  fresh 
water. 

Perhaps  the  most  successful  solution  yet  presented  for  the 
subject  is  that  of  irrigation.  Experiments  siiow  that  for  this 
l)urpose  there  should  he  at  least  one  acre  of  land  for  each  MO 
persons.  The  most  suitable  soil  is  a  loose  gravel  thoroughly 
drained  at  a  depth  of  about  G  ft.  below  the  surface.  The  same 
plot  should  not  l)e  used  continuously,  for  sufficient  time  should 
l)e  given  at  intervals  for  tiie  ground  to  become  thoroughly 
aeriated.  On  being  th.  •  exposed  to  earth  and  air,  all  organic 
particles  become  so  oxidized  that  the  licjuid  passes  off  in  a 
comparatively  pure  state,  and  may  with  safety  be  discharged 
into  a  lake  or  stream.  This  system  recpiires  but  little  time  to 
pay  for  itself,  for  the  amount  of  extra  vegetation  produced 
yearly  on  the  irrigated  soil  has  in  almost  every  case  been  e(iual 
in  value  to  a  large  proportion  of  the  original  cost  of  land  and 
labor. 

At  Coventry  in  T^ngland,  the  liquid  sewage  is  rendered  harmless 
by  mixing  it  with  sulphate  of  alumina.  The  engineer  in  charge 
of  the  works  there  states  in  his  report  that  the  fluid  passing 
off  at  the  rate  of  80,000  gallons  per  liour  was  clear  and  bright, 
and  of  a  high  standard  of  purity.  It  was  without  smell  or 
color  and  at  noon  was  found  to  contain  only  5.85  parts  of  am- 
monia in  100,000  parts.  The  solid  matter  from  the  sewer, 
after  being  separated  from  the  licjuid,  is  dried  and  sold  as  a 
fertilizer  for  the  land.  In  order  that  the  discharge  may  be 
more  copious  various  storage  tanks  have  been  devised,  so  that 
when  a  flow  occurs  it  will  be  dispersed  over  a  greater  area  of 

land. 

Another  method  of  sewage  disposal  is  that  of  ignition.  The 
precipitated  sewage  is  first  run  into  shallow  pits  where  it  is  par- 
tially dried,  after  which  it  is  burned  in  large  kilns.  This  method, 
ahhoiish  producing  no  revenue  from  the  waste,  and  on  the  other 
hand  creating  some  expense,  has  the  advantage  of  immediately 
and  thoroughly  destroying  the  source  of  disease,  which  is  far 


-".»(i    i:.\(;iM:]:ui\a  of  si/ni's  axd  fmtoiuks 

».Ht(-r  than  st.-rin-  up  fV:,p..rat(Ml  (..vcnMa  witl.  Ilic  (vxpctation 
••f  s..ll.n^'  a,  an.l  the  lialulitv  ..f  sp.vading  .•  irkm's.s  througJiout 
tlic  fount ry. 

l-'n.n.  tin.  «l,„vo  it  appears  fliaf  hu^v  manufactories  instead 
(.f  Uieurru.K  constant  expense  for  the  disposal  of  sewage  can 
cause  It  to  l,e  a  souice  of  revenue,  and  streams  n.av  cntiime  pure 
»"<1  cloan  instea.l  of  l.eing  polluted  as  they  «o  often  are  witli 
dyes  and  refuse  from  sliop.s  and  mills. 


KXOOOOaiHXtS 


niAl'TKU  XXIV 
WATER  SUPPLY  AND  STORAGE  TANKS 

The  four  chief  departments  of  water  siipjily  are:  (1)  The  source, 
(2)  the  reservoir  or  storage  taiii<,  (;{)  tlie  puiiipiiif;  e(iuipiuent, 
ami  (4)  tlie  distril)Uting  pipes  ami  system. 

Water  for  mamifactiirinjr  plants  can  he  taken  either  from  some 
estal)lislie(l  town  supply,  or  independently  from  an  adjoining 
lai;o  or  river,  thouizh  spriufis  or  artesian  wells  are  often  used. 
In  some  re;;ions  such  as  that  adjoining;  the  great  watershed  of 
the  Mississipjii  river,  or  in  the  western 
arid  states,  artesian  wells  are  common,  j^... 

and  the  depth   at  which  water  is  found       capxit^t  ^ i 'v,-?  i.'aco'** 
may  vary  from  100  to  30(K)  ft.     These 
wells  are  usually  8  in.  in  diameter  and 
are  lined  with  wrought-iron  pipe. 

Klevated  tanks  are  valu  '  'o  not  only 
for  regular  water  service,  but  for  fire 
protection,  especially  with  automatic 
.sprinkler  systems  which  should  always 
he  connectetl  to  two  .separate  water 
sources.  lOven  in  towns  and  cities  with 
adjoining  fire  hydrants,  insurance  rates 
are  greatly  reduced  hy  the  ])rescnce  of 
a  private  pressure  tank.  These  were 
formerly  made  cxclusivel}'  of  wood  and 
are  now  to  a  great  extent,  hut  as  they 
rarely  last  more  than  twelve  to  fifteen 
years,  they  arc  heing  replaced  hy  steel. 
They  may  either  be  at  ground  level  or 
elevated  on  a  tower,  the  latter  being 
most  effective  when  only  a  limited  water  sup['ly  is  needed,  for 
their  whole  contents  is  then  under  a  higher  pressure  than  if 
standing  on  the  ground.  Some  designs  are  illustrated  in  Figs. 
Ma,  146,  147  and  14«,  tiie  last  being  of  concrete.  Fig,  14!)  is 
tne  detail  of  a  tank  roof. 

297 


Clevotion 

Fic.  145. — Steel  water 
tank  and  tower  at  Paris, 
III. 


298     HS(;iSKi:i{!\(!  OF  SlKiPS  .l.\7)  FAcrouiFs; 

Thp  nuiiil.cr  of  |..uer  Ux»  slioul.l  Kn  pioportM.nal  to  tlio  si/o 
of  Iniik,  Uunc  ones  mniirin^  a  ftrcatcr  minihrr  than  .smaller  om-s. 
liy  fur  tJie  luvniest  and  luont  cxpoiiMive  j)art  of  fraiiifd  water 

towers  is  the  platform  uiuler  tho 
tank,  where  very  heavy  heamH 
uro  often  needed,  but  this  expense 
may  he  rediiceii  liy  iisin^'  a  spher- 
ieal  bottom. 

They  must  be  sironjj  enough  to 
resist  the  pressure  of  water,  a 
eiiliie  foot  of  which,  containing 
7.48  jtallons,  weighs  ut  t>2°  V. 
Gl'.;{()  lb.  A  gallon  of  water  con- 
taiiiinj;  L';n  eu.  in.,  weighs  8.;j;{  lb., 
and  a  pressure  of  1  II).  per  scpiare 
inch  therefore  resultsfrom  adepth 
vf-JMl  ft. 

The  problem  of  water  supjjly 
may  be  comparatively  simple  in 
reuions  near  the  coast  with  large 
precipitation,  but  in  a;id  coun- 
tries it  is  often  perplexing,  and  tho 
little  water  that  can  be  found 
nuist  be  collected  and  stored,  in 
the  Masternor  Middle  States,  small 
streams  may  oft«>n  be  dammed 
at  two  or  three  points,  thus  form- 
ing ponds  or  storage  basins  of  fresh 
wafer,  but  streams  are  not  always 
available  and  other  methods  must 
be  sought. 

In  order  to  show  some  of  the 
,    .^         _      I'ondit ions  in  t!ie  arid  states,  and 
'""k  ■■/wi5r^rl^«-7/;^^,^?j'-**    the  methods  of  overcoming  them, 
Via.     146.— Water    tank    and  ^  ^"".'^'^  account  is  given  of  the  in- 
towcT,  Great  Northern  Power  Co.   vestigations  and   plans   made   by 
Height  241  ft.  the  writer  for  supplying  and  stor- 

ing w;iter  for  railroad  shops  and 
locomotives,  at  a  snudi  town  in  Nevada  on  a  main  line  of  railwav. 
The   old    i)ut   insufficient  water  supply  came  from   a  snuill 
reservoir  on  rising  ground  about  a  mile  north  of  the  railway 


U\\Ti:i{  SCI'I'LY  AM)  STOHAai-:  TASKS 


I'OO 


depot.  Tlic  .Murfaco  of  this  rcsorvoir  was  22  ft.  aliovc  ilio  haso 
of  rail  nt  the  old  wati-r  tank,  md  from  tliis  reservoir  ix  1(  -in. 
riveted  iron  pipe  l)roiinht  wat»  r  ilown  l>y  f;raviiy  to  a  .'JO, (MM) 
fiallon  wooden  tank  located  about  7(M)  ft.  from  I  lie  depot.     T'a.s 


A ' 


J,         Ulrdcr 

m   111  &JU     ttKMT  i:j* 

I  1*1  U  ■  Sft 


3i«  I'l  :»'s  Si ' 


if»i«  .114.;  o 

S  f  11.  11 


Htnln  i^■%^^} 

iHk  ir.  !„■  v.-'."j.ii'5" 

lU4'<3"l5i.  ' 


atniB  X>u.liO 

ai-ti.  iTi  }r  . 
lin*n-.  H(,..w.an 

t  LI  ii  J  a  ?u' 


Fig.  147. — Tower  for  water  tank. 


tank  stood  on  wooden  posts  and  the  highest  water  in  it  was 
20^  ft,  .".hove  the  hane  of  rail.  Tt  \v:i.a,  !!,';pd  not  :m]y  for  sup- 
plying locomotives,  but  for  the  workmen's  liou.ses  and  u  few 
fire  hydrants. 


;5()()    twaiXKEHixa  of  sifors  and  factories 

On  account  of  increased  travel  on  tiic  railway,  ami  the  huild- 
ing  of  lar-o  new  shops  and  round  house,  as  well  as  for  additional 


6DranHoiei'> 


508 


2i-no- 


<r---j-''&il!iAMmkt,s;it!i^---—'—-J 


•iii 


16  S  en  Circle -J 

Csit^ofr.cnt  cf  UUor  Concrete  Oirtkr 


e  I ;,■;■'„ ^} 


Fig.    148.— Water  fiink  niui   tower  of  riiiiforocd  conrretc.     Chicago  City 
liuilway  Co.,  Cliicugo,  III. 

hou.>o  .M-rvice,  the  old  supply  had  become  insufReient  and  it  was 
decided  to  build  an  additional  or  larger  tank,  leaving  the  old 


WATER  SUI'l'LY  AM)  S:'>IiA(H':  TAXKS 


301 


one  and  the  pipe  ronncctins  it  to  tlic  reservoir  in  tiieir  orijiinnl 
condition.  In  providinj;  a  new  tank,  it  wuh  tiie  intention  to 
have  a  supply  of  100,000  jtailons  of  water  above  tlic  level  of  the 
spouts  whieh  deliver  v  or  to  the  enjiines,  which  are  a])out 
12  ft.  above  the  b:  ,  of  raii.  1>  vis  further  intended  to  have 
the  new  tank  with  'ii>  uJpc  siippl'  :.<!;  it,  independent  of  the  old 
one.  Measurement-  o  iiio  flow  ■  '  water  from  th(>  reservoir  on 
the  hill  showed  a  di.iy  ..i: . '  ;r';t  of  l'.)0,000  fjallons,  whieh  was 
sufficient  for  both  old  and  new  sj'steins.  An  attempt  to  raise 
the  level  of  the  reservoir  by  banking  it  up  with  earth  had  pre- 


Fio.  149. — Dome  of  reinforced  ooncrete  water  tower. 


viously  been  made,  but  instead  of  rising  as  was  expected  the 
water  seeped  away  and  escaped.  It  appeared,  therefore,  that  in 
order  to  secure  a  greater  liead  of  water  it  would  be  necessary 
to  go  farther  up  the  valley  and  dam  the  water  at  a  higher  level, 
which  plan  was  not  favored  on  account  of  the  extra  expense. 

Comparative  designs  and  estimates  were,  tiierefore,  made  for 
several  kinds  of  storage  tanks,  with  a  view  to  selecting  the  most 
economical  and  efficient  one.  The  designs  in  all  cases  have 
steel  tanks,  and  when  towers  arc  used  they  stand  on  concrete 
bases,  with  pedestals  of  sufficient  size  under  the  foot  of  each 


302 


ES(!ISEERIS(;  OF  SHOPS  AM)  FACTORIES 


(•(.Imnn  so  tlio  prossure  on  tlio  s..il  will  not  oxcoed  three  tons  per 
s.iiiMro  f....t.  As  the  soil  in  this  vi.initv  was  sand  and  gravel  it 
was  excellent  for  foun.lations,  an,l  the  assn.ned  unit  j.res.sure 
comparatively  .small.  Hetwc.n  the  i.edestals  is  a  layer  of  eon- 
nete  12  ni.  thi.k  over  tJic  whole  remaining  area,  this  feature 
iM-mg  des.rahle,  espeeially  in  winter,  when  water  from  leakage 
mifiht  soak  helow  'he  foundations  and  cause  injury  from  frost 

Where  the  tanks  rest   directly   on   tlie  foundation  without 
cohimns,  the  estnnates  provide  for  u  solid  l.ase  of  concrete  4  ft 
thick  under  the  tanks,  extending'  a  foot  outside  of  them  at  the 
upper  sui-face,  and  stepped  out  still  further  at  the  bottom      In 
this  case  a  lai-,,  p.,,t  „f  the  cost  is  in  the  concrete,  which  is  al.nut 
four  times  -reater  than  for  desi-ns  with   towers.     Instead  of 
usin-  a  solid  hl„ck  of  concrete,  tJie  cost  mijiht  be  reduced  by 
conn-  out  the  center  jiart  and  fillino-  it  with  sand      Tlic  e'li.i, 
would   then  bo  excavated  to  a  dej.th  of  .'iV   ft.  and  a  laver  of 
c.mcrete  laid  12  in.  thick,  with  a  wall  2  ft.  thick  and  3  ft"  liLd, 
around  the  sides,  the  top  of  wall  being  6  in.  above  the  grouml 
After  this  concrete  is  set,  tlie  inside  part  is  hlled  to  a  tiejjth  of  2 
ft.   with  sand   and  gravel,  well  rammed  in  lavers  ti  in    thick 
Oyer  the  tilling  is  then  placed  another  slab  of  concrete   V>  in" 
thick,  tiie  toj.  being  covered  with  !   in.  of  ri.^h  cement  mortar' 
It  should  be  1  m.  higher  at  tlie  center  than  at  the  rim,  and  should 
have    occasmnal    water   gutters    about    1]    in.    deep  formed  in 
the   concrete   for  drainage,   radiating   from   the  center   to   the 
circiimference. 

]{y  comi)aring  the  .lesigns  it  will  be  seen  that  the  low,  flat 
t.vpe  of  tank  is  not  economical,  and,  generallv,  the  more  nearly 
equal  are  the  diameter  and  height,   the  less  will  be  tJie  cost 
Lstimates  in  all  cases  include  roofing  the  tank  over  with  a  wooden 
frame  covered  with  •  in.  sheathing  and  galvanized  iron 

Comparative  Designs.  Style  A.— This  is  a  steel  tank  10  ft 
high  and  48  ft.  in  diamet.-r  with  a  cai)acitv  of  100,000  -al- 
lons,  stamling  on  columns  12  ft.  high  (Fig.  l,-,()).  Tank  plates 
are  >  m.  thick,  ami  veitical  joints  are  lapped  and  double 
riveted,  but  the  bottom  lias  butt  joints  .single  riveted  so  the 
tank  bottom  will  have  even  bearing  on  the  beams  or  base 
Joists  are  7-in.  I  at  IT.  lb.  per  lineal  foot,  2  ft.  apart,  rest- 
ing on  l.-,.,n.  I  a,  12  lb.,  spa.^ed  !)  ft.  apart,  the  whole  floor 
sysi,.n.  b..m-  canie.l  or,  2K  columns  each  made  of  f„ur  angles 
and    a    j.lale.      Diagonal     vind    bracing  is  placed  in  two  direc- 


WATER  SUPPLY  A\D  STORAGE  TAXKS       303 

tions  at  rii  t  anjilos  to  each  other.  Inside  of  the  tank  are 
four  liftht  cukimns  at  the  four  corners  of  an  8-ft  sejiiare, 
supi)orting  tlie  roof,  and  these  staml  on  tlie  bottom  plate 
vertically    over    the    colunins   under  them.     The  supi)ly   pipe 


Fig.  150. 


Fio.  151. 


Tank  tloipns. 


enters  the  tank  through  the  bottom  near  its  center,  and  it  has 
a  gravity  valve.  AVhcn  water  in  the  tank  is  drawn  off,  ilie 
availaV)le  or  acting  head  is  increas(>d,  and  the  velocity  in  the 
pipe  is  accelerated,  but  as  the  tank  fills  up  the  head  is  diniin- 


FiG  152. 


Fig.  153. 


Tank  designs. 


ished  and  the  velocity  and  discharge  gradually  decrea-se.  The 
overflow  pipe  adjoins  the  inlet  and  both  are  enclosed  in  frost 
bo.\es  made  of  matched  lumber  with  double  walls  G  in.  apart, 
the  space  between  them  being  filled  with  sawdust  tightly  rammed 
in  phitc.  TliC  ostiiiiated  cost  of  the  conipleto  Blructure,  not 
including  pipes  or  connections,  is  $5000. 


;<()!    i:.\(i/M:hh'i.\(;  of  sjiops  am)  factories 

Style  B.-Tiiis  is  similnr  to  A.  iiinl  is  lic.-ivy  fnoufrh  to  stip- 
linrt  :iii  ndtlilioiial  li(>iulit  of  IT)  ft.  iFij,'.  l.")!)  if  sucli  extni 
cMpacity  slioiild  l,c  rc(|iiii(Ml  in  tlic  future.  The  est iiiiated  cost, 
of  tanlv  and  tower  (•oni|)iete  in  j)ositiori  is  StL'OO. 

Style  C— 'riiis  is  a  niodilicatioii  of  tlic  last  witii  tJic  a<i(ii- 
tional  1.-)  ft.  in  lieiiiiit  imiuded  (Fit:-.  l.-,2).  The  tank  will  have  a 
(•aj)a(ity  of  ;i()((.()()0  -ailons.  To  ill!  a  taniv  of  tiiis  iiei-lit,  eitlier 
a  ies(.rvoir  must  he  j.laced  at  a  Jiij^iier  level  from  which  it 
would  i)e  filled  hy  .uiavity,  or  a  small  punipinii  plant  installed. 
The  cost  of  a  i)uinp  witii  a  sum])  and  1(M)(»  ft.  additional  1)']]h', 
to  connect  the  tank  wiiii  the  enLiine  i-oom  wheic  the  ])unip  would 
lie  phiced  is  aliout  >;s(K).  This  amount  added  to  the  cost  of  the 
tank  itself  makes  tlie  total  cost  of  'lotli  alM)ut  SKMO. 


Vu..  l.-|. 


lie.  15.5. 


Tank  ili-imis. 


Style  D.  It  i-eseml.les  Style  A  except  inji  that  the  tank 
stands  diicctiy  on  the  concicte  foundation  (Vh^.  l,"))})  instead  of 
lieinj;-  elevated  on  columns.  Tlie  amount  of  water  stored  in 
fiiis  taidv  al)ov(>  tlie  level  of  the  locomotive  feed  is  no  j;reat(  r 
than  for  .\.  l)ut  the  total  amount  is  aliout  :{{)().(){)()  <;allons,  and 
the  extra  supply  can  l.e  used  to  advantage  in  the  waterin<:-  of 
cars  and  for  use  around  the  enoi,|(.  Jn)use  and  machine  shop.  The 
cost  includin.ii'  a  solid  concrete  liase  4  ft.  thick  is  SGIOO. 

Style  E.- This  is  similar  to  the  last,  hut  is  made  sutriciently 
strong  to  sujiport  an  additional  1.")  ft.  in  heij;ht  in  case  it  should 
he  7ieed(<d.     TJie  estimated  cost  is  STWO  (Fiji.  l.Vl). 

Style  F.  Ill  tJiis  estimate-,  the  1.")  additional  ft.  in  lieifrht 
referred  to  in  the  last  is  included,  makinj;  tli<-  total  capacity  ahout 
4:)0,()(K)  gallons.  The  estitnated  cost  indudinj;  the  necessary 
pumping  oiitfii  is  ?;)4fK)  (!"i».  ].",.",•,. 

Style  G.  —All  the  i)revious  designs  have  had  a  diameter  of 


WATi:i{  SIl'I'LY  ASl)  STOIiAUE  TAXKS 


30.1 


48  ft.  l)iif  tliis  Olio  (Fi>r.  1-,G)  is  ri'diiccil  to  L'S  ft.  iiiid  li.S  ft.  Iiijih 
of  tlio  n'i|iiii('(l  .size  to  hold  1(M),()()0  fralloiis.  It  stands  on  col- 
unms  12  ft.  liijiii,  and  only  one-third  of  its  caijacity,  or  about 
30,000  jjallons  can  l)e  filled  \>y  i;ravity  from  tiie  old  reservoir. 
The  reniaininj;  two-thirds  must  either  be  pumped  or  come  from 
a  reservoir  at  a  lu^lier  level.  In  this  case,  as  in  C  and  F,  the 
estimate  includes  an  item  of  SSOOfor  a  pump  and  its  e([uipnient. 
If  this  ])ump  should  l)e  out  of  order  at  any  time,  the  tank  will 
still  contain  .'^O.OOd  ;;:dIons  of  water,  su])plied  from  the  old  reser- 
voir by  jiravity,  which  amount  is  cipial  to  the  whole  capacity 
of  the  old  wooden  tank,  and  would  temporarily  be  sufHcietit  to 
meet  the  ordiiuiry  demand  of  locomotives.  Witiiout  any  re- 
serve sujiply  the  estimated  cost  of  this  design,  including  the 
immping  outfit,  is  .?4l*00. 


Fio.  l.-.r,.  Vi,:.  157. 

Tank  designs. 

Style  H. — Tin's  is  similar  to  Style  ('>,  excepting  tliat  instead 
of  su])i)orting  the  tank  on  steel  columns,  it  stands  directly  on  a 
concret(  base  (Fig.  1")7),  tliereby  increasing  the  storage  capacity 
to  loO.OOO  gallons.  The  estitnated  cost  of  tlic  structure  complete 
and  in  position,  including  the  pump  and  accessories,  is  S4500. 
It  is  28  ft.  in  tliameter  and  40  ft.  high,  and  will  always  contain 
at  least  :50.000  gallons  of  water  above  the  locomotive  spouts, 
as  this  height  will  be  maintained  by  gravity.  The  extra  lieight 
of  about  20  ft.  can  be  filled  by  a  centrifugal  pump  with  4-in. 
suction  and  deliver}-  connections,  which  will  be  located  in 
the  machine  shop  convenient  to  the  main  driving  shaft.  The 
l)ump  would  cost  Sl.lO  and  is  guaranteed  to  deliver  200,000  to 
300,000  gallons  per  day.  but  with  this  cup'  'ity  it  need  lie  in 
operation  only  during  regular  working  Lm....!  or  a  j)ortion()f 
them.     If  it  should  ever  become  necessary  to  keep  the  pump 

20 


3nc,     i:SGINEERI\G  OF  SHOPS  A\D  FACTOIUES 

ill  roiistant  oiioration.  a  small  8-h.p.  engine  might  be  installed 
at  an  additional  cost  of  aliout  -S'-'OO. 

The  tank  is  supplied  liy  an  independent  line  of  riveted  steel 
])ipe  10  in.  in  diameter,  nmning  from  the  old  reservoir  alnnit  one 
mile  up  the  valley,  and  connecting  to  a  cast-iron  sump  box  (.r 
cistern  under  the  machine  siioj)  lloor.     The  sump  has  a  movable 
to])  which  can  be  taken  off  for  cleaning  or  removing  deposit 
that  may  have  come  tlown  the  supi)ly  i)ipe.     It  is  permanently 
under  tlie  i)ressure  of  a  L'_'-ft.  head  of  water,  and  from  it  a  cen- 
trifugal pump  forces  water  into  the  storage  tank.     Valves  are 
provided  on  eacii  side  of  the  sump  to  shut  off  the  flow  of  water 
in  tiie  ])ipes.     The  supply  enters  the  tank  from  the  bottom,  so 
it  will  be  filled  up  to  the  20.i-ft.  level  by  gravity  before  ]nimp- 
ing  is  needed.     By  connecting  the  su])ply  pipe  to  the  Ixjttom 
the  greatest  velocity  is  secured,  and  when  water  in  the  tank  is 
low  it  fills  again  at  a  greater  speed  than  when  tank  and  reser- 
voir are  approaching  the  same  level.     No  frost  boxes  or  other 
pipe  ])rotection  are  recpiired,  as  the  pipes  are  embedded  hi  the 
concrete  below  the  level  of  the  groun<l.     The  estimated  cost  of 
.?4.")00  includes  a  solid  block  of  concrete  4  ft.  thick,  but  this  cost 
may  be  reduced  by  coring  out  the  central  part  as  previously 
de^■(ribed,  and  filling  it  with  solid  sand  and  gravel.     The  valve 
over  the  sujjply  pipe  in  the  bottom  opens  upward  so  that  water 
may  alwavs  enter  and   i'  is  kept  closed  by  gravity  and  by  the 
weight  of  water  above  it.     A  H)-in.  supjily  pipe  under  a  head  of 
only  -'  ft.  will  .leliver  water  at  the  rate  of  2.0  cu.  ft.  or  IX  gallon.s 
per  second,  which  is  more  than  suflicient  to  keep  the  tank  con- 
tinuously and  adeciuatcly  supplied.     It  is  covered  over  with  a 
conical  roof,  framed  witii  wood  and  covered  with  galvanized  iron. 
Selection  of  Style.— The  considerations  in  selecting  a  design 
from  tlie  several  possible  ones  are  that  it  should  contain  enough 
water  to  supply  eight  to  ten  locomotives  daily  in  both  directions, 
or  a  total  of  sixteen  to  twenty,  the  average  capacity  of  their 
tanks  being  40,000  gallons.     There  must  also  be  enough  water 
to  replenish  car  tanks  on  the  passenger  trains.     The  round  hou.se 
will  rc'iuire  water  for  cleaning,  and  the  machine  shop  and  boiler 
room  •■ttached  thereto  will  need  from    i.'),000  to  20,000  gallons 
])er  day  for  the  l)oilers  and  general  service.     The  hotels  and  other 
houses  nuist  also  be  supplied,  and  adjoining  the  railroad  depot 
is  a  fire  plug  which  may  at  any  time  be  Ijrought  into  active 
service. 


WATER  SUPPLY  AND  STORAGE  TANKS 


307 


Choice  must  iilso  1)0  made  hcfween  <;ravlty  sii|)j)ly  ami  pwmp- 
iuK.  A  jiravity  system  is  usually  ineferred,  hecauso  it  reijuires 
no  attention  and  there  is  no  macJiinery  to  break  down  or  hecome 
disordered.  Of  the  four  desijins  considered,  in  Avhich  water 
supply  must  come  from  a  hijilier  reservoir  or  be  forced  uj)  with 
pumps,  the  natural  supply  is  greatly  preferred  and  a  liij;her 
basin  may  be  built  at  any  time  in  the  future  and  pii>e  ;'onnection 
made  tlu'reto.  A  suitable  site  for  such  a  water  basin  could  be 
found  2  or  ',i  miles  farther  up  the  valley  at  a  place  where  the 
hills  converj.'e,  Avhere  the  head  would  have  an  additional  heijiht 
of  200  ft.  TIk^  cost  of  this  leservoir  and  the  2  or  '.i  miles  of  pipe 
would  be  from  S4000  to  !?.')()()(),  while  the  i)umping  plant  can  lie 
installed  for  an  additional  cost  of  only  S800.  The  reason  for 
the  low  cost  of  a  pum])iiijr  ])lant  is,  that  the  machine  shop 
adjoiuinfi  the  round  liouse  which  is  only  .")00  ft.  from  the  proposed 
water  tank,  is  already  e([ui|>])C(l  with  power,  ami  the  only  addi- 
tional machinery  needed  is  a  pump  v.liich  may  l)e  run  by  belt 
from  the  overhead  shaftinjr. 

The  third  consideration  in  choosinj;  from  the  possible  types 
described  abo\ e  is  the  matter  of  cost,  a  summary  of  which  is 
given  in  the  following  schetlule: 


■Mi 


Cost 


Capacity  in  gallons 


Style  A ,•?.)()()() 

Style  n 0200 

Style  C S.TOO 

Style  1) 0100 

Style  F. 7;«)0 

Style  F <)40() 

Style  (i -J-iOO 

St  vie  II I.')00 


100,(M)0 
100,(KK) 
300,000 
;«M),(K)0 
3(H),(K)0 
4.J0,()(H) 
100,000 
l.->0,000 


In  selecting  a  tank  from  the  eight  designs  considered,  Style 
11,  for  a  tank  40  ft.  in  height  and  28  ft.  in  diameter,  standing 
on  a  solid  concrete  base,  offered  the  greatest  advant  iges  and 
was  therefore  chosen.  Its  comparative  merits  have  previously 
been  given. 

Other  designs  for  water  tanks  or  stand  i)ipes  arc  shown  in 
Figs.  158,  159  and  IGO. 


308    i:.\(;im:i:his(!  of  siiors  axd  factories 


' .  ''JV?r«y>bw 


s'O'C'iio* 


Fig     138.— Steel   and   conrrotc  water  tnnk   at   Gniml    l!api<ls,   Michigan. 
Capacity  ivSfj.OOO  gallons. 


WATER  SUPPLY  AND  STORAGE  TANKS       309 


Tig.  loO. — Reinforced  concrete  stand  pipe,  Westerly,  R.  I. 


«u'DJ».CjlinJet.  OO'Hivh.    Tt.i.ki.Mi  l...-*<f  PUfrt  (<jt  Uyli^i»l\r  rtMiutt 


Circuuifftra.a  1^^< 
ArM  tlt^O  CI  S-i  I'l. 


I.  ^u  I II-  < 


jLU.  .    6«.u 


I  IJ 


i'-A    I*'     Conleon 


SU.tMAi  Lbt    t  nil  ?'(lcH 
-  ;  J.iHii  t.rt.-icni-7 
4.,-  Factut  ajIii; 

LitiiuaUj  Weijhl  }f  ^lanJ  I'  p«. 

Ua  riau  J-.'.UJ-'    •• 

Dull  Juiui  '       A[}<rui.  IJ.lM)   " 

RUtli  ••  14.JUIJ   '• 


«.T:  iBcln  \   I'late 


:;i;,yJ6  ■ 


1  0(i>T:<.JCOCu  ri.  aitiUi  LU. 
^       ,  Fuund.(i(.q 
■^v     4i'DMm  bj  j'Thkk*  1"  Cu  Vda.  al  JTQO  H>^»6a4/i';j_" 

CcariDj  (Surface  FuutiJalii>B  | 
_j  4i'  Diain  -IJ'."U  I  Si  Ft. 

0,.".5l.'J:0Lbi.-i.i:''.">4Ni  F(."  35ni.I.i.p«r  J, 

ttt^.^'t.*  l.i^  TuM  bMj  Um(1.  "^ 


UfKrtLiniiri^  Mumcut  of  Wind 
H,  luna  l>i  JUUttrsf*'*  l<i|IU  Fu-loui 
KcaiaUiK^  i<j  MTtriuTDittg 
lue  TuQs    I    -m  ^  SlOU  Fi.-T»u 


Ttikkiici*  at  PItIM 
Bad  fUlt  ^" 


Fig.  ICO. — Stand  pipe  stress  sheet. 


■•,    1 

s  ■. 

H        \ 

S      ^ 

if 

\l 

310     KSdIMJKIUSG  OF  SHOPS  ASD  FACTOlilKS 


TABi.r:  xxiv— sTANDAiin  niMi'xsMXs  rou  Rdrxn  n(>TT()M  sirri,  tanks 


Capacity  ill 
galloii.s 


( )iit>i(lc  (liaiiic- 
tcr  in  fci't 


l<'ii:lil  of  tank  siiii'  nut  incimlin); 
cnrvtil  iMiltiiin 


It. 


In. 


1(1,0110 
!."),( 100 
'Jtl.OOO 
2.'), 01 10 

;io,o(M) 
.•^■>,ooo 

40.000 
4.").(K(0 
")0,00() 
").").  000 
liO.OOO 

ri."),(M)o 

70.000 

7.").(MM) 

SO.tKH) 

00.000 

ICHl.OOO 

1L'.').000 

l.->0,000 

17.'),000 

200.000 

•J.")0,000 

;ioo,ooo 


11 

12 
i:i 
14 

ITi 
10 


IS 
IS 
10 
1!> 
20 
20 
21 
21 
22 
24 
25 
2(! 
28 
30 

:\2 


10 

1 1 

111 

17 
IS 
IS 
IS 
21 
20 

2.{ 
.)•> 

2f 

2:i 

2.". 
21 
27 
2S 

2;» 
;!2 

3.". 

:?7 


0 
0 
0 

o 

0 

0 
0 
0 

J 

0 
0 
4 
0 

:i 

0 
9 
0 
0 
6 
5 
1 
4 
.{ 


WATi:ii  srri'LV  .t.v/>  srou.un-:  tasks     an 


TABl.r:    XXV   -CAPA'  ITV 


I.I-     CYTIXniUrAI,     TANKS,    INI  I.UDIJJfl     IIKMI- 
Sl'lll.KUAI.  IIOITUM 


Diuiiutrr  Capiu'ity  in  gallons  j.cr 

in  fcL't  wrtical  foot 


(':t|iiicily   in    pillonn  of 
li('ini>|>li('ri('ul  liottoiii 


."l 

1  Itl  1) 

6 

211   5 

i 

2M7  1» 

H               1 

;i7t).l) 

(» 

47-..  !> 

10 

587.(1 

11 

nc  9 

IJ 

84f..O 

i;{ 

<)02 .  !t 

14 

li:.i.5 

1.-. 

l.i21.<) 

Kl 

l.-.()4    1 

17 

ir,<i7  it 

IS 

l'.»0.!.(i 

1>) 

2120.;) 

L'O 

2:!:>()  1 

21 

2.V.)1.0 

')•> 

2HU.r> 

23 

3t(VK  < 

24 

;!  M 

25 

;«)72(i 

2(J 

3971.  (i 

27 

42S.J.O 

2.S 

40O0.2 

2".) 

4911.0 

liO 

-.2.S7  7 

244  H 
423  0 
♦171  S 
1002  7 
1427  1 
195,S.3 
2ti(Ml  (i 

:{:{H4  t) 
4:«)2.t> 
r):<7;i .  7 

()(1(I9 . 5 
8021.9 
9021.4 
11421  6 
KM  32. 4 
l.-.C.()7.3 
1.SI37.0 
2(».S.3:?.l 
2:iS28.0 
27072.8 
;{0(i(M) .  0 
34420  5 
3.8547.0 
'2991.2 
47703  () 
52877  0 


:ji_'    i:.\(iiM-:h:iii.\a  of  sik^i's  asd  factouies 


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WATER  SUPPLY  A.\D  STORAGE  TAXKS        315 


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riTAPTEK  XXV 
STEEL  CHIMNEYS 

This  typo  of  stack  is  used  ehiofly  for  lofty  ones  with  heights 
of  130  to  300  ft.  They  liave  tlio  advantage  of  occupying  small 
space,  and  costing  30  to  30  per  cent,  less  tlian  brick.  The  effect 
of  wind  on  cyliiulrical  surfaces  is  only  half  as  great  as  on  flat 
ones  of  the  same  width,  and  in  metal  stacks,  the  overturning 
tendency  inay  l)e  resisted  by  increasing  the  bottom  diameter. 
This  obviates  the  use  of  unsightly  guy  ropes,  which  at  once 
betray  their  weakness.  They  should  be  proportioned  for  a  winil 
pressure  of  .")0  lb.  per  square  foot,  corresponding  to  a  velocity  of 
100  miles  per  hour.  The  small  weight  of  steel  draft  stacks  pro- 
duces a  corresponding  saving  in  the  cost  of  the  foundations.  One 
300  ft.  in  height  would  have  a  bottom  wall  thickness  of  55  to 
()0  in.  in  brick,  and  18  to  24  in.  in  icinfoiced  concrete,  retjuiiing 
greater  width  and  sustaining  power  in  the  foundation.  Metal 
stacks  can  be  erected  nuich  more  rapidly  than  masonry,  and  an 
onlimiry  one  100  ft.  in  height  sJiould  easily  be  completed  within 
thirty  days.  Thoy  have,  however,  the  disadvantage  of  requiring 
fnvnient  ])ainting,  at  least  once  every  four  years  (Fig.  101). 

Their  re(iuired  height  dejjends  somewhat  on  tlie  surroundings, 
and  the  elevation  of  adjoining  hills  and  buildings,  and  they  are 
more  efTeclive  on  higji  ground  than  in  a,  valley.  But  their 
lieijriit  sliould  always  be  at  least  twenty  times  their  inside 
diameter. 

Tlie  need  of  lining  will  depend  largely  on  the  proximity  of  the 
boilers,  because  when  removed  frtmi  the  source  of  heat  the 
/^moke  and  gases  will  have  cooled  enough  before  reaching  the 
^tack  to  make  lining  uimecessary.  Some  builders  make  a  prac- 
tice of  lining  all  stacks  exceeding  75  ft.  in  height,  and  reinforced 
concrete  is  now  being  much  used  for  this  purpose. 

With  the  relative  proportion  of  diameter  and  height  as  given 
above,  the  thickness  of  plates  should  be  according  to  the  follow- 
ing table; 

316 


STEEL  CHIMNEYS 


317 


V»rt.col        Piv»+;ng        ©•♦0.19, 


fPiirrrs 


7t   "TtV 


Iron    Door     ond     Frarrw 
in      Fokjndotoo 


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Horizontal       Rivating 
Data-Is- 


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P1at«        Connef»icn         D«ratl». 


Vtri-ital  S»c*'on 


P.an     of     B«ll     arxJ 
Foundation  Plata*, 

Enlarged 


Fia.  101. — Steel  chimney  for  the  St.  Louis  Transit  Co.     Height  202  ft. 


318    i:\(ii.\i:j:i{i.\(j  of  siiors  axd  factories 


'^D 


UpjKT    40  ft.  of  sfiuk  sliould  liavc  i)lat('s  :i   l(i  in.  Iliick. 

40  to  (iO    ft.  l).'low  the  top,  ])latc.';     1/4  in.  tliiclv. 

(iO  to  80    ft.  below  tlio  top,  plates  ,5/10  in.  tliick. 

SO  to  100  ft.  l)clo\v  the  to]),  jilatcs    S/S  in.  tliick. 

100  to  120  ft.  l)i'lo\v  till'  toji,  i)late.i     1/2  in.  tliick. 

The  width  of  hasr  shoolil  usually  lip  iiicT'casod  to  twice  tho  iippor 
diameter,  the  chaiijii'  starliiij:  at  a  licijilit  of  live  (liaiuctcr.s  aliove 
the  foiiiKlation  (Fi.ir.  1('>-').  I'l)  to  200  ft.  in 
licitilit,  th(>  avcraiic  cost  shoidd  not  exceed -SIO 
to  SI")  pel'  vertical  foot. 

A  ladder  should  lie  placed  on  the  ontsid(>  for 
use  wlicn  paint iufr,  and  a  circular  trolley  track 
near  tlu;  toj),  standinj;  out  a  few  inches 
from  the  cylinder,  will  ])erniit  workmen  on  a 
siis[iendcd  platform  to  mo\e  themselves  about 
to  any  desired  position.  The  whole  apjiearance 
is  improved  liy  tiie  addition  of  a  neat  orna- 
nient.d  iron  top  with  jirojectinj;  cornice. 

A  clieajiei-  type  of  m(Mal  staid<  may  he  made  in 
reclanuular  form,  framed  with  structural  shapes, 
and  lined  inside  with  corrujiated  iron.  Anj;les 
are  convenient  for  corner  members,  and  chan- 
nels fur  the  horizontal  j;irths,  which  shoidd  be 
placed  aiiout  \)\  ft.  aj)art  vertically,  for  10- 
ft.  me*al  sheets.  They  must  usmdly  be  puyed 
at  intervals  of  about  .SO  ft.  apart  vertically. 
One  of  this  form,  1<)0  ft.  in  hei<;ht,  and  10  by 
ll2  ft.  in  sectional  area,  erected  at  (Jarfield, 
.■).'>.(MK)  111.  and  cost  less  than  $4000,  equivalent 


Q 

s 


<-2D     » 

lir..  102.— fliim 
my  (liajrrMni. 


rt.'dl,  Weii^hed 

to  S.S  cents  per  pound. 


^HAPTKK  XXVI 
FIRE   PROTECTION 

The  need  of  ailcqiiate  fire  protection  can  best  be  shown  by 
reference  to  statistics.  During  the  year  1907,  which  was  free 
from  any  great  conlhigrations  such  as  those  which  visited  tlio 
cities  of  Chicago,  Haltiinore  and  8an  Francisco,  the  fire  loss  in 
the  United  States  was  as  follows: 

Property $215,000,000 

Lives  lost 14.",() 

Persons  injured oO.)!) 

About  two-thirds  of  the  above  loss  was  from  wooden  buildings. 
Reports  from  the  insurance  companies  show  that  there  are 
annually  about  2000  fires  in  manufacturing  buildings  in  the 
United  States,  resulting  in  losses  of  $25,000  or  more,  each, 
nuiking  a  yearly  loss  e(iual  to  $2.50  for  every  living  person  in 
the  countr}-.  At  least  one  quarter  of  these  fires  include  more 
than  one  buihling.  Reports  from  seven  large  cities  of  Europe 
reveal  a  nmch  smaller  loss,  the  average  being  only  30  cents  for 
each  inhabitant. 

Fire  loss  is  relatively  small  in  plants  which  are  built  and 
eijuipped  according  to  the  standard  regulations  of  the  fire  insur- 
ance companies,  the  average  for  ten  years  being  only  4  cents  per 
$100  of  value,  while  in  plants  devoid  of  such  jirotection  the  loss 
is  about  GO  cents  per  $100.  While  fires  cannot  be  entirely  avoided, 
it  is  now  well  known  tluit  by  taking  the  proper  precaution,  at 
least  60  per  cent,  of  them  would  never  occur.  Insurance  is 
merely  a  means  of  rea<ly  relief  to  the  first  loser,  but  when  viewed 
in  a  wider  light  it  only  distributes  loss  among  a  greater  number 
of  ])ersons,  the  total  to  the  connnunity  remaining  the  same. 

Methods  of  Protection. — Fire  protection  is  .secured  in  several 
ways,  some  of  which  are 

1.  VifQ  of  fireproof  building  material. 

2.  Separation  of  stories  anc'  departments. 

3.  Installation  of  firo-fightinj,  appliances. 

4.  Frequent  inspection. 

5.  Fire  drill. 

310 


SSI 


:<L'()    k.\(;i.\i:i:ri\(;  of  s/ioi's  axd  FAcronnis 

Fireproof  Materials.  Tlic  lu-st  way  to  picvciit  fire  is  to  m.ko 
tin-  hiiiluiii^  as  iicaiiy  lircproof  as  pussildc.  TiiiilK-r  sIkciIi!  )  o 
ill  lai-fic  sizes,  and  framed  aceonliiiii  to  tlie  slaiidaids  of  "Slow 
liui'iiiiifi  or  Wood  Mill  Construction"  wiiicli  is  liescrihed  else- 
where. When  in  larjre  sizes,  timber  is  dccomposeil  very  slowly 
in  a  lire,  and  it  has  been  found  nuicli  safer  tiian  inipiotectod 
steel.  In  compariufi  Slow  Hurninn  Construition  with  the  older 
type  haviiij;  small  joist  1(»  to  18  in.  apart,  as  in  residences,  a 
floor  with  heavy  framinj;  will  last  live  to  ten  times  as  Ion;'  in  a 
fire  as  one  with  joist.  Comparative  tests  of  two  huildinj^s  under 
similar  conditions  showed  that  the  heavy  framinj;  stood  for 
twenty  minutes  in  the  same  lire  tiiat  caused  joists  to  collapse 
in  less  than  three  minutes.  Wooden  walls  may  he  1.'.")  jier  cent, 
cheaper  than  brick  and  reipiire  less  e\i)ensive  foundations,  but 
when  used,  small  i)ieces  that  will  easily  burn,  should  be  avoided. 

riiprotected  steel  must  not  be  used,  but  must  l)e  covered  with 
fireproof  material  such  as  l)rick,  terra-cotta  or  concrete,  tlumjih 
a  better  way  is  to  make  the  whole  buildinfi  of  concrete.  Stone  is 
not  reliable  in  fire,  for  it  splits  and  cracl.s  and  is  quite  inferior 
to  brick  or  concrete. 

Hoofs  sliould  be  as  i.early  fireproof  as  possible,  especially 
over  fires,  or  adjoininj;  stacks  or  flues.  If  the  uncovered  hand 
cannot  be  held  a,!iain.-t  a  hot  pipe  it  is  not  safe  to  be  in  contact 
with  wood,  for  when  framinf;  becomes  thorou<!,hly  dry  it  is  in 
fir<>ater  daiifier  of  takiii!.'  fire.  Chimneys  where  they  i)ass  through 
the  roof  should  i)e  surrounded  by  a  metal  Iiood.  A  flue  is  not 
always  hottest  near  the  furnace,  for  some  of  the  jjases  may  not 
fully  i,iinite  until  reachiiifr  the  open  air.  Pi])es  ar(>,  therefore, 
often  hotter  near  the  to])  than  adjoinin.u-  the  furnace.  If  a  pii)o 
should  endanuer  the  roof,  the  danger  may  sometimes  be  lessened 
by  lenntheiiin.ir  it. 

Small  framinu'  members  sucli  as  are  freijuently  found  in  .^kv- 
liiihts,  ventilators,  jiiitters,  and  louvres,  should  be  avoided,  as 
they  easily  catch  and  hold  fire,  and  the  roof  exterior  should  be 
well  covered  with  some  such  coverin<;  as  jiravel  or  sheet  metal. 

Arrangement  of  Departments. —  Departments  where  the  fire 
risk  is  greatest  should  be  divided  from  the  rest  by  fire  walls,  or 
l)laced  in  separate  buildings,  and,  as  far  as  j)ossible,  floors  and 
departments  sliould  be  sejiarated  from  each  other.  Openings 
through  the  floors  must  be  avoided,  for  they  not  only  ailow  fire 
to  puss  up  through  the  building,  but  heat  from  fire  in  a  lower 


FIRE  PliOTKCTIOX 


■^•21 


story  m:iy  riso  tlirou-li  ll„„r  ..poiiiiijis  and  cjuiso  sprinklers  in 
upper  stories  to  open  wiili  accompanying:  water  loss,  even  where 
!ire  may  liave  done  no  injury.  Stairs  between  the  floors  should 
l)e  in  separate  towers  ()utsi<lo  tlu-  l)Mildinj.-  rectanjile,  witli  a(  cess 
to  tiiem  throuj-h  automatic  closin-  doors.  When  openinjis 
tlirou-h  the  floors  are  unavoidable,  they  should  be  covered  with 
self-closing  hatches. 

Protective  Systems.— Automatic  .«i)rinkling  systems  arc  by  far 
the  best  fire  extinguisiiers,  for  not  less  than  70  percent,  of  all 
fires  in  buildings  so  e<iuippcd,  have])een  put  out.     Sprinklers  are 
of  two  kinds,  usually  known  as  (1)  the  wet  system,  and  (2)  the 
dry  system.     The   first  can  be  used  only 
where  pipes  will  not  freeze,  while  the  sec- 
ond  is  suitable    anywhere.     Small   water 
l)ipes    are    suspended   l)elow   the   ceilings, 
with  sprinkler  nozzles  G  to   10  ft.   apart, 
the  nozzles  being  scaletl  with  soft  nu^tal 
which    melts   easily  at    a  temperature  of 
about    l.")0   dcgre(>s,  or  about  .")0   degrees 
above    the  highest   summer  heat.     These 
pipes  are  connected  to  at  least  two  inde- 
petident    sources  of  water  sup])ly,   usually 
the  public  system  of  the  city  and  a  private 
elevated  tank  or  stand  pipe.     Ceiling  pipes 
vary  in  size  froin  J-in.  diameter  for  that 
which  supplies  a  single  head,  to  G-in.  dia- 
meter   for    those    supplying    200    lieads. 
Nozzles    (Fig.    163)    are    made   in  several 
ways  and  should  stand  above  the  pipe  in 
order  to  throw  water  on  the  ceiling  from  which  it  is  deflected  to 
the  floor.     This  not  only  gi:-es  the  greatest  spread  of  water  but 
l'<-rnuts  the  pipes  to  be  drained,  all  those  on  the  ceiling  having 
!i  slight  inclination  toward  the  verfi-al  ones.     Pipes  must  not 
be   enclosed   in    the   ceiling  or  in  ca^ng,  but  must  be  open  for 
inspection. 

In  the  "dry  system"  where  water  in  the  pipes  would  freeze 
water  is  held  back  by  compresse.l  air,  but  is  liberated  when  the 
sprinkler  fuses  melt. 

In  the  outside  system  of  yard  pipes  for  the  sprinklers  the 
supply  (o  each  l.uiidijig  siiould  he  regulated  by  a  valve  outside 
the  building  which  can  be  closed  in  case  any  one  building  is 


Fio.  lO;?.— Sprinkler 
nozzle. 


322     ENGINEERING  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


dcstroyod,  for  if  such  pij)CH  were  left  open,  the  pressure  in  the 
othor  l)uiklinjiH  would  be  lowered. 

Sprinkler  systems,  inehuling  the  whole  equipment,  cost  ti  to 
10  cents  per  square  foot  of  floor  area.     In  some  cases  the  inside 


Fig.  164. 


Fio.  165. 


Hose  coils. 


Fio.  166. 


Fia.  167. 


Hose  coils. 


work  alone,  with  piping  and  haads,  has  cost  7  cents  per  squarefoot, 

and  10  cents  per  foot  including  the  cost  of  tanks,  yard  pipes,  etc. 

Other  fire  fighting  appliances  include  sand  pails,  water  buckets, 

hose  coils  (Figs.  164-167)  and  chemical  extinguishers  (Fig.  168). 


FIRE  PROTECTION  323 

These  are  useful  chiefly  for  putting  out  fire  in  its  first  stage 
before  tiic  sprinklers  have  begun  to  work.  Hose  pressures 
should  not  exceed  40  to  GO  lb.  per  square  inch,  for  those  who 
are  not  accustomed  to  handling  hose  are  unable  to  control  the 
nozzle  at  high  pressures.  The  discharge  of  water  through 
nozzles  of  different  size  at  a  pressure  of  100  lb.  per  square  inch 
Is  as  follows: 


Fig.  168.— Chemical  extinguisher. 

1  i  in.  nozzle,  discharges  at  100  lb..  466  gallons  per  minute. 
1  J  m.  nozz  e,  discharges  at  100  lb..  671  gallons  per  minute. 
1  i  in.  nozz  c,  discharges  at  100  lb.,  904  gallcos  per  minute. 
^     m.  nozzle,  discharges  at  100  ib.,  1194  gallons  per  minute. 

Inspection.— Rigid  and  frequent  inspection  of  plants  by  officers 
of  the  Fire  Insurance  Companies  is  one  of  the  best  methods  of 
preventing  fire  loss.  These  inspections  are  made  every  three 
months  by  different  men  who  are  not  supplied  with  previous 
reports,  and  independent  inspections  of  this  kind  are  therefore 
a  check  on  each  other.  Examination  is  made  of  every  thing 
pertaining  to  fire  risk,  including  the  methods  of  lighting,  heating 


—   -IJ  «,->,! 


mm 


THiapa  ■jwpw?*  - 


t:*fv^ 


^^w^ 


">«^rB^ 


32 1    K\(;ixE!':Ri\a  of  shops  a\d  factories 

typp  of  const  ruclidii,  hnildinj;;  contents  and  npi)liancps,  nearness 
of  fire  liyilraiils  and  tiie  1(>(  al  ijrotoctive  systen..  The  dejjree  of 
order  and  cleanliness  niaintained  inside  tlie  huildin<;,  and  the 
familiarity  of  the  occupants  with  the  methods  provided  for  lire 
extinction,  are  all  noted  and  reported.  Such  inspections  are,  of 
course,  cpiite  expensive,  l)ut  liave  proved  to  i)e  ultimate  economy. 

While  inspection  by  oflicers  of  the  insurance  companies  la 
valuable,  it  slnmld  not  be  left  -wholly  to  them,  because  their 
examinations  are  fre(niently  more  for  their  own  benefit  than  for 
tiic  owners  or  occupants.  The  insurance  company  nuiy  be 
willing;  to  receive  a  hijiher  rate,  ami  are  often  most  interested  in 
seein^f  that  the  rate  is  hif;h  enoufih. 

Cleanliness  and  Order. — Prevention  of  fire  is  l)etter  than 
extinction,  for  loss  is  rarely  co\ered  by  the  insurance.  Failure 
to  complete  ccmtracts  on  time,  the  scattering;  of  workmen  and 
loss  of  liusiness,  are  matters  not  in  the  insurance  policies.  It  is 
therefore  wisdom  to  use  every  effort  toward  the  prevention  of 
fire,  and  no  measiues  are  more  effective  in  this  direction  than 
order  and  cleanliness.  Certain  rules  should  lie  established  in 
referenc'e  to  smoking  or  the  use  of  fire  al)out  the  buildings,  and 
violations  of  these  rules  should  be  punished  by  suspension  or 
dis!iiissal. 

Buildings  sliould  be  cleaned  daily  during  dayliglit,  preferably 
just  before  closing.  This  will  not  only  avoid  the  need  of  artificial 
light  and  its  a<'conipanying  danger,  but  will  give  janitors  better 
light  for  tiu'irwork,  and  avoid  any  excu^e  for  imjiroper  service. 
Aisles  will  no  doui)t  be  kept  dean,  and  attention  should  be  given 
to  space  under  tables,  behind  machines,  in  closets,  i,r  under 
stairs,  where  dirt  is  most  likely  to  accunuilate.  Rubbish  must 
not  lie  allowed  to  collect,  but  must  be  removed  from  the  shops 
to  outer  sheds  or  to  the  dump.  Kubliish  boxes  should  be 
of  metal  with  self-closing  covers,  and  they  should  be  emptied 
daily. 

Dust  is  a  common  cause  of  fire,  and  once  or  twice  a  month, 
the  whole  })uilding  interior  should  be  swept  and  dust  removed 
from  such  places  as  door  and  window  heads,  and  from  the  truss 
framing  if  it  is  exposed.  Certain  articles  used  al)out  shops  often 
cause  spontaneous  combustion.  Dust,  shop  sweepings,  or  waste 
wlien  soaked  with  oil  frequently  take  fire,  and  sal  ammoniac  and 
iron  filings  mixed  with  dirt  are  also  dangerous,  and  these  should 
not  be  permitted  to  collect  or  remain  unprotected.     Likewise 


FIHE  I'ROTECTIOS 


3l'5 


the  duMt  from  jiriiidii-j;  .Htoni-s  ami  oinci  y  \\\\w\»  .spttlinji  on  wet 
Ku:fuci'.s  is  likely  to  take  lire.  (Vllais,  attics  aiul  all  liiiiden 
places  .sht)uKl  ho  kept  dean  aiul  clear  uf  nihhish,  and  the  \m'- 
^enti()n  of  fire  sluudd  l)e  included  as  part  of  the  rejivilar  expense, 
llniployees  in  jjattcrn  and  templet  shops  have  occasionahr 
been  found  dryinn  lumher  over  furnaces,  or  usinjt  other  dangerous 
means  to  hasten  the  seasoning,  and  at  other  times,  torches  and 
ftasolino  lamps  have  I.een  can-lessly  used.  Any  such  rarelesri 
conduct  should  \,v  efTectively  stoppid  amf  its  repetition 
prevent<'(i. 

Fire  nrill.— A  re;;ular  system  of  fire  drill 

should    1)0    nuiintained    at   every  factory. 

These  systems  should  he  jroverned  by  law 

and   should    l)e  uniform  for  all  plants,  so 

that  employees  chan<;in);  from  one  place  to 

another  will  not  he  ohlified  to  learn  a  new 

lot   uf    rcfiulations,   or   be   confused    with 

orders  with  which  they  are  not  familiar. 

Tile  sy.stem  of  drill  should  he  military  in 

character,  under  the  direction  of  ofhCers 

of  different  rank.     It    should   i)o  directed 

hy  a  fire  marshall  whose  authority  in  these 

matters    is  supreme,  and  captains  should 

iiave    char>;e  of  Hours  or  huildin^s,   with 

lieutenants  for  separate   rooms.     The  or- 

franization  should  he  extentled  furtiier  if 

necesstry,    with    foremen    to    direct    the 

movements  of  occupants  in  companies  of 
twenty-five  to  fifty  persons.  All  officers 
should  he  accustomed  to  command,  so  their 
authority  in  fire  emerfiencies  will  he  re- 
sju'cted.  Other  men  wil'  '-.■  jussijrned  to 
special  duties  as  retpiired,  anti  to  prevent  crowdinjr,  -fairs  and  fire 
escapes  should  have  a  guard  at  every  landing.  The  officers 
should  make  daily  or  fre,,uent  inspections,  noting  stairs,  exits 
and  passage  ways  to  see  that  they  are  always  clear  Doors 
must  always  open  ojtward  and  nmst  he  examined  to  see  that 
tiiose  at  exits  which  ure  seldom  used  excepting  at  fire  drill,  are 
.accossi!-lc.     Gongs  „f  other  signals  must  be  kept,  in  order 

Full  printed  instructions  for  fire  drill  and  protection  must  he 
posted  conspicuously  throughout  the  buildings,  and  in  different 


Fig.  109.— Hand  ex- 

tinguislier. 


P^ 


TP* 


326     FSaiS'KEk/Xa  OF  .^UOPS  ASD  FACTORIES 

liiHguiigCM,  if  n«>(e:<Hiirv  Oi  '  ts  should  hr  announced  by  ihiUh  or 
Kongs  in  the  diffort'iii  -lories  ..  (i<  r  the  direction  of  the  captuins, 
wlio  receive  their  "iJers  from  the  mursludl  on  iin  outer  gong  of 
different  tone.  Fire  i.s  first  aiinoumed  by  a  succession  of  strokes 
on  the  marshall's  gong,  and  inuii<  'iately  all  occupants  of  the 
building  should  come  to  i  <  .ioi  ,  shut  off  power  from  their 
machines,  and  stop  won.  -co'^t^ve  orders  from  the  floor 
captains  may  be  given  as  i "ii  .,v  s 

One  stroke  of  Kong.  moai.i  i^  'o  i-iii'.r  i'  <»  paiuiage  ways. 

Two  Ntrokcit  of  Ku»K>  iiic  ii.    if.  t<i  I'lrtn  in  lino. 

Three  strukcei  of  gong,  nj  ;a  ..r...  (,ti  iiiuri'li  ..•it  of  'he  building. 

These  drills  should  be  giv  n  .i'  lea.-:  oace  afurtnight  at  irregular 
intervals  without  previous  .anouncciH"-*.  anii  all  occupants  of 
the  building  must  take  parr.  The  regal  i;  entrances  with  which 
employees  are  most  familiiir  should,  a.-^  fn:  as  possible,  be  us(d  in 
preference  to  any  other^  If  there  are  iii-uffii  lent  e.xits  or 
dangerous  defects  in  the  protective  system,  hey  wili  be  discio.sed 
by  these  drilLs  and  may  then  be  remedied. 

.\J1  exits  mu.st  be  indicated  by  red  lights.  Fire  officers  should 
keep  with  them  a  pocket  memoranda  with  the  names  of  all  occu- 
pants of  their  respective  rooms  or  departments,  and  af  -uch 
drill,  names  shoidd  be  announced  and  check  1  off  on  i  he  11.-  , 
to  .see  that  all  are  accounted  f(p:.  Hi  fore  ma  'hing  from  the 
building,  all  lights  should  be  extinguished. 

In  case  of  fire,  liand  e.xtinguishers  (Fig.  I'iO)  should  .».  used 
to  the  limit  of  theii'  usefulne.ss  before  resorting  to  other  metliods. 
When  passing  thnagh  dense  smoke,  a  wet  landkerchicf,  cloth, 
or  wa«te,  ^hoidd  l)e  tied  over  the  month  anii  n.  -e,  and  as  smoke 
rises  and  iias  the  least  density  at  its  lowest  le\el,  escajie  in  extreme 
cases  may  be  made  bj  crawding  along  the  floor. 


m 

I 
f 


ClIAF^TER  XX VU 
CRANES 

Hand  Travtlinf  Shop  C^anc  -The  accn  ,  .mvinft  usf  ition 
(h  1)1  17UI  '^howB  vpica  shi.n  rrtH'  li  ■signeu  by  tiie  \.  .ter, 
in  a  series    )i  dini'      iona  and  cHpaci  yerul  of  which  have 

been  buili    <ind  pui    nto  s     ■e^     il     tjeruion.     The  principu' 


-^  ^^5 


Fio.  170. — Shop  crane. 

feature  of  tat-  lesign  is,  that  it  gives  the  greatest  amount  of  lift 
or  clearance  beneath  the  bridge,  and  leaves  space  for  knee  braces 
in  the  building  frame.  In  steel  frame  buildings  with  traveling 
cranes  of  the  usual  type,  vertical  space  is  lost  by  '-coping  the 
crane  low  enough  to  clear  the  knee  braces.    If  such  clearance  is 

327 


^t 


3l>8     h\<;iM-Kin.\G  OF  SHOPS  A\D  FACTORIES 

not  provided,  :ind  knee  l>nicos  are  omitted  or  made  so  small  that 
they  are  almost  useless,  the  stiffness  of  the  whole  frame  is 
eaerifieed.  Iii  tliis  desijin,  however,  ample  room  is  left  for  deep 
braces,  and  the  crane  hiid-e  is  jjlaeed  close  up  under  the  roof 
trusses,  resulting  iu  a  stiff  building  frame  and  maximum  clearance 
under  the  crane. 

Another  important  feature  of  the  design  is  the  side  or  lateral 
bracmg.  It  is  important  that  a  shop  crane  should  travel  truly 
parallel  with  the  building/  «ut  with  insufficient  bracing  the 
frame  of  the  crane  is  liable  to  get  out  of  square,  causing  one  end 
to  travel  slightly  in  advance  of  the  other.  To  pievent  such 
action  this  crane  has  wide  side  bracing  connecting  out  to  the 
extremities  of  the  end  trucks. 

As  previously  stated,  these  cranes  are  made  of  various  sizes 
and  capacities,  but  the  standard  form  of  si)ecification  is  as 
follows: 


SPECIFICATION-  FOR  HAND  TUAVELIXr.  CRAXE. 

^  General.— The  crane  will  be  as  shown  on  the  print  accompany- 
mg  these  specifications.  It  consists  of  a  box  girder  grooved  on  the 
upper  side,  and  mounted  at  the  ends  on  a  pair  of  trucks  which 
are  carried  on  24-iii.  cast-iron  chilled  tread  wheels.  The  wheels 
are  ground  to  run  on  standard lb.  track  rails. 

The  gearing  throughout  is  steel  spur  gears,  with  teeth  cut 
from  the  solid.  The  end  truck  wheels  have  roller  bearings. 
Ihe  general  dimensions  are  as  shown  on  the  plan. 

Capacity.— The  lifting  capacity  of  the  crane  is  .'  .    .    .    .tons, 

and    the    guaranteed    testing    capacity tons      The 

height  of  lift  is ft. 

Movement.— The  bridge  travel  is  operated  with  a  hand  chain 
working  on  a  3G-in.  sprocket  wheel,  which  is  geared  through  a 
series  of  reduction  gears  to  one  i)!iir  of  truck  axles.  The  shaft 
to  which  this  si)rockei  is  geared  runs  along  the  length  of  the 
crane  and  is  supported  at  intermediate  points  to  the  frame 

The  trolley  is  moved  by  pulling  on  the  suspended  hoisting 
block. 

The  lifting  is  performed  by  pulling  on  the  3/8-in.  chain  of  a 
.  .  .  .  .  ton  trii)lex  hoisting  block,  which  is  part  of  the  block 
mechanism. 

Trolley.— The  trolley  is  made  of  four  single  flange in. 


CRANES 


329 


chilled  tread  wheels  supported  by  bent  plates  that  are  curved  in 
at  the  lower  side  and  united  with  a  pin  on  which  the  hoist  block 
is  sustained.  The  trolley  wheels  run  in  the  outer  faces  of 
channels  which  form  the  lower  chord  of  the  crane  girder. 

Hoist  Block  and  Hook. — The  hoist  block  is  forged  from  the 
best  refined  iron,  and  is  amply  strong  enough  to  carry  its  maxi- 
nmm  load.  It  swivels  on  hardened  steel  balls  turning  between 
disks. 

Material. — The  material  of  the  bridge  and  other  riveted  parts 
is  medium  open  hearth  or  Bessemer  steel  with  an  ultimate 
capacity  of  50,000  to  00,000  lb.  per  square  inch  in  tension.  The 
maximum  fiber  stresses  used  in  proportioning  the  crane  are 
10,000  lb.  per  square  inch  in  compression,  and  12,000  lb.  per 
sfiuare  inch  in  tension.  A  factor  of  safety  of  five  is  provided 
throughout. 

Wheel  Loads. — The  maximum  wheel  load  is lb.,  or 

a  total  of lb.  on  the  two  wheels  at  the  loaded  end  of 

the  crane.  Th.  weight  includes  the  weight  of  the  frame, 
inachincry  trolley,  hoist  block  and  suspended  load. 

Erection. — The  crane  is  to  Ic  erected  by  the  contractor,  so  he 
shall  be  responsible  for  the  proper  and  cffii  lent  working  of  the 
machine. 

Guarantee. — The  contractor  guarantees  the  crane  to  be  made 
of  the  best  material,  and  to  be  satisfactory  ami  according  to 
sj)ecifications  in  every  respect.  Any  l)reakage  that  may  occur 
witliin  one  year  after  date  of  contract  or  purchase,  will  be 
replaced  by  the  contractor  free  of  cliarge  to  the  purchaser.  It 
is  guaranteed  also  to  handle  the  working  load  with  ease  and 
safety. 

Note. — The  subject  of  "Cranes"  is  so  extensive  that  it  is  impossible  to 
give  it  any  comprehensive  treatment  in  the  scope  of  this  volume.  Several 
treatises  have  been  written  covering  all  branches  of  the  subject,  and  to 
these  the  rea<ler  is  referred  for  fuller  information.  Weight  tables  for  hand 
and  power  cranes  may  bo  found  in  Tyrrell's  "Mill  Buildings,"  and  in  a 
later  edition  of  this  book  it  is  hoped  to  give  the  subject  greater  considera- 
tion. Mention  is  made  here  only  to  the  writer's  design  for  a  simple  form  of 
hand  crane  which  can  easily  be  made  in  any  structural  shop. — The  Aijthoh. 


til 


I 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
YARDS  AND  TRANSPORTATION 

The  arrangement  of  buildings  in  relation  to  each  other,  with 
their  storage  and  shipping  facilities,  is  discussed  to  some  extent 
in  Chapter  II,  but  further  particulars  of  the  yards  and  the  means 
of  transferring  materials  between  the  buildings  is  given  here. 


Fio.  171.— Hicks  Locomotive  and  Car  Works,  Chicago  Heights. 


Only  small  shops  with  light  products  can  carry  on  business 
economically  without  a  railroad  connection,  for  the  receiving 
and  unloading  of  fuel  is  reason  enough  for  the  presence  of  a 

330 


YARDS  AND  TRANSPORTATION 


331 


siding.     The  shippinfi  o(  even  one  carload  per  week  might  very 
soon  pay  for  track  facilities  or  for  a  better  location. 

The  laying  out  of  yards  (Fig.  171)  includes  grading,  placing  of 
sewers,  water  pipet-,  tracks,  switches,  engine  or  motor  sheds, 
trolley  lines,  scale  and  weighing  house,  driveways,  footwalks, 
fences,  gates,  etc.  Some  of  these  items,  especially  the  arrange- 
ment of  tracks,  is  of  vital  importance  to  the  interest  of  the 
business. 

Track  Arrangement. — Tracks  in  manufacturing  yards  are  of 
two  kintis,  (1)  standard  gauge  for  heavy  cars,  and  (2)  light  ones 
for  hand  cars  and  trucks.  Enough  of  the  former  kind  must  be 
used  to  ship  and  store  heavy  goods,  and  as  many  of  the  lighter 
ones  for  moving  snudler  parts  as  convenience  may  direct.  The 
arrangement  of  tracks  will  depend  to  some  extent  on  the  kind  of 
power  and  type  of  motors,  though  connection  to  the  main  line  of 
railway  will  always  be  with  standard  gauge.  Yard  tracks  may  be 
laid  out  in  either  one  of  two  ways,  (1)  with  stub  end  sidings 
(Fig.  172),  and  (2)  with  a  circuit  or  loop  (Fig.  173).  The  first 
method  is  sufficient  for  small  plants,  and  maj'  sometimes  be  for 
larger  ones  if  enough  sidings  are  provided,  though  in  large  works 
the  loop  or  circuit  system  has  the  greatest  advantage.  Circuits 
sh  uld  have  two  connections  to  the  nuiin  line  and  shoidd  have  all 
the  additional  sidings  that  will  ever  be  needed  for  the  storage  of 
cars,  the  sidings  running  off  by  a  system  of  yard  "  ladders." 
Turntables  for  turning  cars  are  usually  a  nuisance  for  they  be- 
come clogged  with  snow  and  ice  and  leave  a  partially  open  and 
dangerous  pit.  Curves  are  much  better,  and  those  for  standard 
gauge  should  have  a  radius  of  235  ft.  or  more,  so  cars  and  locomo- 
tives will  not  bind,  while  the  radius  for  30-in.  gauge  should  not  be 
less  than  40  ft. 

The  need  of  running  wide  gauge  tracks  into  the  buildings  will 
depend  on  conditions  and  the  methods  of  receiving  and  shipping 
as  previously  determined.  Heavy  goods  such  as  structural  work 
and  machinery,  which  is  completed  in  the  shop  ready  for  ship- 
me  I  nay  be  loaded  by  running  cars  into  the  building  or  by 
ex  '  r  i^i  ^  the  shop  cranes  out  through  the  end  and  over  the  ship- 
pin,  ds.  In  the  former  case,  with  cars  admitted  to  the  shop 
for  loading,  it  is  usually  sufficient  to  project  the  tracks  one  or  two 
car  lengths  into  the  shop  on  a  stub,  and  after  loading  the  car,  to 
withdraw  it  again.     The  cost  of  standard  gauge  with  rails  and 


m 


xu    k.\(!Im:I':i{i.\<;  of  shops  A\n  factouiks 


»3>mww 


ftuT. /*■.=. ' 


YARDS  AND  TRANSPORTATION 


333 


tics  may  ho  estimated  approximately  at  the  rate  of  $2  per  lineal 
foot. 

Lijiht  track  for  service  cars  sliould  1)0  freely  used  about  the 
yard  and  works,  hut  adjoining  ones  should  iu)t  he  closer  together 
than  G  ft.  on  centers.  The  distance  between  rails  may  vary 
anywhere  from  15  in.  to  4  ft.  8  1/2  in.  as  used  for  standard  steam 
cars,  thoufjh  the  usual  width  is  30  in.  Rails  weighing  40  lb.  per 
yard  aro  heavy  enough,  and  in  shops,  streets  or  thoroughfares, 
tiie  rail  heads  should  never  be  al)ove  the  floor  or  grade.  Drive- 
ways about  the  yard  or  between  the  tracks  and  buildings  may 
conveniently  l)e  paved  witii  brick,  which  is  easier  to  walk  upon 
than  stone,  and  offers  a  better  foothold  for  horses  than  asphalt. 


m. 


I'm.  173. — Caiiailian  Pacific  RaiKvay  sliops.     Montrua),  Canada. 

Motors. — The  kinds  of  haulage  motor  used  about  shops  and 
iiulustrial  works  include  steam,  electric  and  compressed  air  loco- 
motives, the  electric  type,  all  things  considered,  being  the  best. 
These  can  travel  on  the  standard  gauge  steam  tracks,  even  though 
the  custom  is  not  favored  by  the  steam  railroad  officials.  When 
the  trolley  wire  for  an  electric  locomotive  would  interfere  with 
the  movement  of  cranes,  the  locomoti\e  can  have  a  trolley 
connection  through  a  slot  in  the  floor,  or  when  entering  a  Imilding 
with  the  trolley  on  an  overhead  wire,  the  wire  can  be  made  to 
uncoil  in  advance  of  the  locomotive  and  furnish  it  with  jK)wer, 
the  wire  coiling  up  again  as  the  motor  recedes.  A  motor  derrick 
car  is  also  very  handy  about  the  yard  for  lifting  and  hiading  goods. 

Compressed  air  locomotives  are  perhaps  tlie  safest  about  works 
which  have  much  lumber  or  other  combustil)le  materials,  but  as 
they  require  a  higher  air  pressure  than  usod  for  other  purposes, 
an  additional  heavy  and  expensive  compressor  is  needed.  With 
any  of  the  above  kinds  of  motor  haulage,  small  industrial  cars 


-  I 

II 


h: 


.^••jat- 


i»S^ 


334     ENGINEERING  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 

must  be  supplied  for  the  service  tracks,  and  hand  trucks  -with 
slightly  rounded  tires,  preferably  covered  with  rubber,  are  useful 
for  moving  goods  promiscuously  about  the  shops  to  parts  not 
served  by  the  narrow  gauge  trucks.  Car-wheel  treads  should  not 
be  flat,  but  slightly  tapered  inward  toward  the  flange  as  on 
standard  heavy  cars. 

Loading  and  Conveying  Apparatus. — Lifting  and  handling 
appliances  about  the  yards  and  buildings,  include  travling  cranes, 
gantry  cranes,  trolleys,  mono-rails,  transfer  tables,  and  moving 
platforms.  Nearly  all  modern  plants  are  equipped  more  or  less 
with  traveling  cranes,  and  in  metal  working  shops  and  power 
houses  they  are  an  economic  necessity.  Many  works  now  have 
their  whole  yards  covered  by  a  system  of  traveling  cranes  on 


■  J»#'>»     Orr^^^t. 


,.t-.-...v,.jffi 


:=:r=X 


-f/f-O'- 


Fio.  174. — Cantilever  crane. 


U       II 


elevated  tracks.  When  the  cranes  move  l)otween  adjoining 
buildings  with  girders  on  the  wall  colunms,  the  supports  then 
form  no  additional  obstructions,  but  over  larger  yards  where 
special  runways  must  be  erected,  this  type  of  crane  is  not  so 
desirable.  In  sucii  cases  traveling  gantry  cranes  are  better. 
Cantilever  gantries  with  a  central  tower  moving  on  a  pair  of 
tracks,  and  arms  overhanging  the  yard  at  each  side  (Fig.  174), 
offer  the  least  obstruction  but  are  not  so  stable  as  those  with  end 
supports,  though  some  makes  give  excellent  results. 

Individual  trolleys  are  suitable  for  lifting  and  conveying  loads 
up  to  5  or  6  tons  in  weight  or  occasionally  up  to  10  tons,  and  they 
have  the  merit  of  comparatively  low  cost  but  they  can  travel  only 
in  one  general  direction  without  lateral  movement. 

Mono-rail  systems  which  are  only  a  special  kind  of  trolley 
conveyor  are  useful  in  connection  with  traveling  cranes  and  can 


'^I'M' 


YARDS  AND  TRANSPORTATION 


335 


be  provided  with  switches  and  cross-overs  or  can  travel  around 
curves  and  corners.  The  trolley  support  consists  of  a  single  bar 
of  wrought  metal  folded  over  in  such  shape  that  the  trolley  runs 
within  it,  and  the  thickness  of  the  metal  is  proportioned  to  the 
load  to  be  sustained.  The  track  is  in  many  respects  similar  to  a 
familiar  type  commonly  used  for  rolling  doors.  Its  narrow 
width  and  light  metal  permits  it  to  be  curved  to  comparatively 
small  radii  for  turning  corners.  This  system  is  extensively  used 
in  multi-story  buildings,  especially  in  packing  plants,  where  the 
tracks  have  connections  with  the  freight  elevators  for  transferring 
goods  to  any  story. 


■^ 


CHAPTER   XXIX 


ESTIMATING 

tn  order  to  illustiato  methods  of  csfiinatinf;  building  costs, 
exaiiiples  are  jiiveii  of  estimates  and  hids  made  hy  tlie  writer  in 
I'.tOS.  for  two  difTeieiit  manufaeturinj;  i)iants. 

Tli(>  first  of  these  is  for  tiie  superstructure  of  liuec  metal 
working  shops  at  Chicago  containing: 

1  niiililiiiK.  12")X  IT.'i  ft.  1  Story  and  l)a.sompnt,  HIiIr.  A. 
1  Huil(iiii);,  lt;xl.«fl.  2  Stories  and  liawniciit,  Ulilj;.  H. 
1  Building,  112  X-':J0  ft.    2  Storius  und  basement,    Uldg.    C. 


Building  A. 


Xunil)or  of  squarr  foot  of 
wall  of  ditTcrent  thicknesses 
12  in.    lU  in.     21  in.  24  in. 


Brick. 


Kast, 


\\(>.s( , 


I'ront,     Ifi  in.  wall 
If)  in.  wall 
12  [lier.s 
1(>  in.  wall 
1(>  in.  wall 


.jJXlT.i  ft., 

41  '■I  ""'ft-, 
22X2X4  ft., 

r>\  ■125  ft., 

•M  <'125  ft., 

4  piers      15  ft.  '21  in.  X4  ft. 

5  piers     10ft,  '21  in.X4  ft., 
10  in.  wall      51X125  ft., 


1,750 


1.11 


1,050 


440 


Hi  in.  wa 

1 

0X12.- 

ft., 

l,i:i7 

4  piers 

2x4Xlf>ft., 

.sot 

4  [licrs 

2v  IV  10  ft., 

100 

Bear, 

Id  ill.  wa 
12  piers 

1      1 

-'vl7.- 

JX4X 

fi- 
ll ft., 

2.100 

528 

In.side  u 

all, 

NO  X  10  ft 

175X10  ft 

XOXlSft 

.soxioft 
I75x:!0ft 

X17 

xi: 

XlL 

xv: 

Xll 

in., 
in., 
in., 
in., 
in., 

1,140 
5,2.-.0 

soo 

1,750 

1  Stack, 

10X40  t. 

X17 

in.. 

010 

1  Stack, 

20X40  ft 

xi; 

in.. 

soo 

0,900  10.402  440   2.048 


3S6 


>i 


/•;.S77.U.l77.Vr/ 

Viicr  hrirk,  dcduet  from  ahow  at  tlti.fM)  per  >f. 
•'«-';< -'-'<»  ft.,  7,040 

Lc**  i2xi!»xnft. 

12X   4 X  14ft. 
IMXltiff.,  ;{,s4 

l")X9ft., 
20X.y)ft.,  i,,MK) 

12X11X.J  ft., 


Tile  wall  rappiiiK,   t'i">  lin.  ft. 
Fire  lirick.  J  in.  tliiok  2JX  10  ft. 


8,424 


3,Ii»2 
072 

i:i.-) 


337 


4,395     =    4,01.'!Im|.  ft. 
=  2H,;>(M)  j.rirk 

800  N.].  ft.  =   0, ICO  brick 


M 


Summary. 


fi.iKH)  sq.  ft.  wall,     12  in.  tliiok,  at  2(1  bricks,   l.SO.SOO 

10. 102  .S.I.  ft.  wall,     l(i  in.  thi.k,  at  2(i  brick.-,   270,152 

2,488  sn.  ft.  wall,    21  in.  thick,  at  M  bricks,     82,104 


HuihiiiiR  H. 


492,356  less 
28,000  face -464,000  bricks. 


Hrick.     2  Walls  12  in.  thick,  35X133  ft.  9,310 

Lcs.s       0     4X2Jft.  90 

!•!     4X9  ft.,  468 

8     4X6  ft.,  192 

5     6X13  ft.,  390 


Brick  face     R,\y  16  in.  thick, 
7X120  ft. 


Tile  Toping     i;{0  it.  for  12  in.  wall. 
Face  brick  40  M  (deduct  from  aoove). 
22 


1,110 

8,170X20-    163,400 
21, ,800 

185,200 


338     E  SGI  SEEKING  OF  SHOPS  ASD  FACTORIES 


Building  C. 

Brick. 
12-in.  face  wall,  084x34  ft. 

SOl'iiastprs    2J  ft.  X8in, 
Less  04    llXSft., 

32    11X3  ft., 

32     10  X  9  ft., 

16     10X2  ft., 


23,256 


X.^O 

5,032  8(1.  ft. 
1,050 
2,880 
320 


9,888 


12-in.  inside  wall  124  X  42  ft. 
40X42  ft. 
50X42  ft., 
24X42  ft. 
10X52  ft., 


400  ft.  tile  wall  coping  12-in.    wall. 
Firebrick    4  in.  thick,    20x50  ft. 
Face  brick    134X34  ft.  -15,436 

Less  04    8X11  ft.  5,760 


13,308sq.  ft.  net 
9,996 
832 


24,196 


9,676  X  7 -68  M.    Deduct  from  above. 


Summary. 

12-in, 
8-in, 


wall    24,200  sq.  ft.  at  20, 
wall      3,750  sq.  ft.  at  14 


484,000 
52,500 

536,500 


Bnck  summary. 

Common 

Face 

Fire 

Tile  coping 

Building  A., 

404,000 

28,000 

0,100 

435  lin.  ft. 

Building  B., 

14.5,000 

40,000 

130  lin.  ft. 

Building  C, 

408,000 

68,000 

7,000 

400  lin.  ft. 

1,077,000 

130,000 

13,160 

965  Un.  ft. 

Building  .\. 

Stone. 

2  stone  chimney  caps,    5X5  ft.      50  sq.  ft. 
1  stone  chimney  cup,      3X3  ft.,      9  sq.  ft. 
Coiling  10  in.  X2i  ft..  415  lin.  ft.  830  sq.  ft. 
.300  lin.  ft.  stone  belt  course  5X8  in. 

21  window  sills     6  X  8  in.  X  i  2  ft.  long. 


est:  I  ATI  NO 


Building  B. 


Stono. 


lli)-ft.  coping    10  in.  X2  ft.  0  in. 
l.'«)-ft.  coping    10  in.  X2  ft.  2  in. 
6  stone  gate  posts  3J  X.IJ  X 10  ft.  ■ 
02  stone  sills      5ft.  0  in. 


■  735  cu,  ft. 


380 


Building  C. 


Stone. 


464-ft.  Willi  coping,    \t\  in.  X2  ft. 
90  stone  sills,  lo  ft.  l„ng. 

Entrance  Ashlar,  220  sq.  ft. 


Oin. 


Summary  of  stone. 

1119-ft.  coping,      10  in.  X2  ft.  5  In.  =  2,220  cu.  ft.  at  $1.20 


1822-ft.  sill,        SXSin., 
2  chimney  caps,     5X5  ft., 
1  chimney  cap,      3X3  ft., 
6  gate  posts,       3} X3J  X 10  ft.. 
Entrance  Ashlar, 
Setting, 


COO  cu.  ft.  at 

50  cu.  ft.  at 

9  cu.  ft.  at 

■    735  cu.  ft.  at 

220  sq.  ft.  at 

3,724  cu.  ft.  at 


.60 

2.00 

2.00 

1.20 

.60 

.30 


S2,660 

1,092 

100 

18 

882 

132 

1,117 

SO.OOl 


Building  A. 

Tile  partitions. 

61X16  ft.  of  0-in.  tile,  976 
36X10  ft.  of  Oin.  tile,  .360 


1,336 
60X16  ft.of  8  in.  tile, -960 


Building  C. 

Tile. 

Second  story, 
Second  story. 
First  story. 
First  story, 
Basement, 


180  ft.,  double   6  in.  tile  wall,  18  ft.  high,    6,480  sq.  ft, 
6  in.  tile  wall,  14  ft.  high,        «!■>  =„   tt 


58  ft.,  single  „  ....  ,..^-  „„..,  ^,  „.  „,gn^ 

180  ft.,  double  6  in.  tile  wall,  15  ft.  high, 

124  ft.,  single  6  in.  tile  wall,  15  ft.  high, 

161  ft.,  double  6  in.  tile  -    "     --•■■' 


wall,    9  ft.  high,    2.,S9.S 


812  sq.  ft. 
5,400  sq.  ft. 
1,860  sq.  ft. 


17,450  .q.  ft. 


I 


;?i(»    i:\(;!\i'i:iii\<!  of  siioi'S  .wd  f.utouiks 


SiiiiiMi:irv  111    Till'. 


r.  ii,     IS,T'.M>  sq.  ft. 
K  ill.         '.KiO  .si|.  ft. 


UilililiiiK   V. 

'      ■lllTcIc 


(Vlhtr  puviiiir  'i  ill.  tliick 

Witll  (XpMllilccl   MlrtMl    t  ii       N'o.    H 

( iraiiDlithu:  .stirfujc  1  1,  I  iii.  lliit;k,  IJ5  <17J  ft. 


1  •.•.■>  X  1 7.')  ft    -  •-•  1  ..sT.'i  Kc  1.  f t . 


Hiiililiiii;  .\. 


l{pinfi)rcc(l  ('oncn-lc.     Dc.iinii  !>)  Cniilriu'tnr. 

r  Hi  <:(()  ft.  ISO 

V.'iits  I  i:iv:iti  ft.  JtW 

ltiX7Sft.  l.'.MS 

■J  10«) 
Floor.  r>  ft.XUO  ft.  I'cllar  S..'),SO 
(iraiiolilliio  Mirfacivs  on  7S      !  U)  ft. 


Buililiiii-  It. 


Coiirrotc  p.ivinj;  .'■i!;    ':ir  to  A. 
l(lxi:i:i  ft.  -2,12H 


Huil(tiii);  ('. 

KcinforiU'il  c.oiKTt'tr'. 

in--.>ixi:<ft.     :i,l20 

I  -    SX    S  ft.-.       M 
Cellar  p:  vcMifiit,   1  U  X  J:*!)  f t .  ]  71  ill.  tliiok  with  Kx.  ini't.   1  in. 

>  \...  ll»  I). 
.\r  'a,  .'i  <2M)  ft.  J  l.'fi,(.'>(l  .mj.  ft. 

Ov.r  vault,  r.'Xl2v_>  ft.-2S.S 
Prcv-i  pit  !»(»()  Mj.  ft.     :i  in.  on  Kx.  metal. 
I'laiii  coiicri'tc. 

.\rca  wall  2:{()-;{xn  ft.   1,0.3,5  cu.  ft.   =10  cu.yd. 

Summary  of  conerrto. 


Cell 

ir  floor  ami  surface 

with  ex.  metal 

Roof 

Floor 

]m<i.  .\, 

21,S7.-) 

2,200 

8,580 

IJldK.  B, 

2,i:«) 

Bl.lR.  C, 

2tl,  1,50 

3,184 

288 

50,455  sq.  ft.  5,384  sq.  ft.    8,868  sq.  ft. 


A',S77.»/  l77.Vf/ 
Ci'llur  11  or,    M).  I'l'  sij.  ft.   .^  "i.tMHi  />i|.  yd    at  IS  =.  .S,(i,'(.S 


H<»of,  .'l.lM  M|.   ft. 

St'Ooinl  IliMtr,     H,SV\S  .M).  ft. 
3  in.  Willi,  <NNI  -Ml.  ft. 

Arcu  wall,       K)  cii.  y<l. 


at  :•.>  - 


i:i5 


3tl 


>  4,155 


l2,«i;i 


Uuildl'iK  A. 

Cur|)c'iitry. 

\o.  1,  L.  L.  y. 

p.  s.  3.  s. 

<i 

0  ■,  IJ  ill. 

17.->  ft. 

0,450 

17 

«iXl-'  in. 

(U  ft. 

ti,.-c'8 

5.-. 

2X10  ill. 

SO  ft. 

7,:t.i;j 

:{7 

l(»X12iii. 

0.".  ft. 

:'J,o,-,0 

It 

S.H  in. 

1»   ft. 

1 ,  i  >0 

20 

tiXU  in. 

1»    II. 

2,000 

58 

lOXH  in. 

M  ft. 

20,.«M» 

au    (thing. 


71,701  ft.  H.  M. 


HiHif,  IJ  XC)  in.     r.'.}/,  i:  ■       I,, 

Sccimd,        2ixtiiii.        SOX  111  f    ,r;.> 
I'irst,            2ixt)in.       42X17."         nr, 

.Maple   flooring,    IJX.'U    iii.Xl".  x4. 

7,.{.J0  sq.  ft 
No.  1  nuiple  in  oHice 

Building  iiajxr,  175x42-7,350  si),  ft. 


";  y.p.    21,875 

(   y.p.      8,S0O 
■I  y.p.       7,:{.50 

matched   side  and   i 


F.roct  mill  work. 
Erect  hii    Iwure. 

Coai  blinkers,  -t8  ft.  long X 9  ft.  high. 

20     4X   bin.   X!)ft.,  300 

0     CXIO  in.  X(t  ft..  270 

2  in.  plank     IS  x 'J  ft.,      9B0 

150  ft.     tix  J  ill.,  OOii 


2,1',^0  ft.  B.  .M. 


ili 


342    engixeehim;  of  shops  axd  factories 


VVeiglits  and  cortls. 


Building  B. 


Carpentry. 

53-   8X14  in. 

X   18  ft. 

-   8,904 

45-    7X14  in. 

X    18  ft. 

«i,C15 

2.3-   Ox  12  in. 

X   18  ft. 

2,484 

2-   8X12  in. 

X   9()ft. 

1,440 

1-   8x12  in. 

X 132  ft. 

1,004 

2-   8X14  in. 

X   90  ft. 

1,680 

1-   8X14  in. 

X 120  ft. 

1,120 

2-   4X   Sin. 

X  133  ft. 

704 

2-   7X14  in. 

X  44  ft. 

735 

1-10x12  in. 

X    44  ft. 

440 

25,186 

fCin.  floor,  8X278  ft. 

. 

<       6X3  in.  on  edge 

12,000 

with  I  in.  open  joint      J 
2i  in.  flooring.  First  floor,  16 X  133  ft.  =2,000  sq.  ft. 

second  floor,       16  X 133  ft.  =2,000  sq.  ft. 
li  in.  flooring,   roof,  10X133  ft.  =2,000  sq.  ft. 

li  in-  finish  flooring,  flrst  floor,  10X133X2.     MapIe-4,000  sq. 

ft.  net. 
Building  paper,  16X133X2  tv.  =4,000  sq.  ft, 
Weiglits  and  cords  for  all  3  buildings. 
Weights  460  windows  at  60  lb.,  27,600  lb.,  say  15  tons 

at  $30  =  $450 
Cords,     460  windows  at  20  ft.     9,200  ft.  at  .04,  350 


$800 


Building  C. 
Carpentry. 


Roof, 

Second, 
First, 


50-    0X12  in. 

112  ft. 

33,600 

06-   8X12  in. 

109  ft. 

5     7,550 

12-10x14  in. 

68  ft. 

9,  .'520 

44-10x14  in. 

42  ft. 

21,. 560 

36-   6X14  in. 

42  ft. 

10,,'>04 

54-12x16  in. 

27  ft. 

23,328 

16-10x14  in. 

54  ft. 

10,080 

20-   6X14  in. 

56  ft. 

7,840 

173,982 


ESTIMATING 


343 


Flooring  and  Roofing. 

1}  Roof 
Less  10 


109X227  ft. 
13X24    ft. 


2}  in.  flooring  second,  109X227  ft. 
Less  4  10x20    ft. 


First, 
Less  4 


109X227  ft. 
10X20    ft. 


-24,743  sq.ft. 
3,120 


21,623 

24,734 

800 

23,943 

24,743 

800 

23,943 


11  in.  maple,  first  and  second  floors,     24,000X2  sq.  ft.  =48,000  sq.  ft. 

Building  paper,     48,000  sq.  ft. 
Wood  bolts,  spikes,  nails,  etc.     Total  lumber  624,000  ft.  B.  M. 


Floor  Anchors. 


Using  10  lb.  for  1,000  ft.  B.  M.  framing  timbers. 
Using  30  lb.  for  1,000  ft.  B.  M.  flooring. 

285  M  framing  at  10  lb.  nails  per  M  -   2,8.50  lb. 

400  M  flooring  at  30  lb.  nails  per  M  - 12,000  lb. 


14,850  =  148  kegs 
Or,  if  one  keg  used  for  every  3,000  ft.  H.  M. 
X-     ,  68,500    „„„  , 

^°- *"■«"- 3,W -228 ''"K^- 


Carpentry  Summary. 


Framing 
timber 


liX6 


Building  .\. .. .       73,890        21,875      10,150  1      7,350        7,350 
Building  U...         25,186  2,000         4,000:      4,000         4,000       12,000 

Building  C. ..   ,    173,982     j    21,623,    48,000  |    48,000       48,000  1 


273,058        45,498       68.150       59,350 


59,350  I    12,000 


ii 


'■: .  -aTfS'.-    -::im-':  ^ 


'M[    i:.\(;ixi:Kii.'\(!  of  siinrs  .wd  factohiks 


(  .irjM'iitry  Siininiary,  roiiliiiucd. 

I'Vuniin);  timlier, 
riooriiin,  1,'  x<>, 
Klooriiin.  2\  Xt), 
ri(K)riiiK,  li-iii.  ir.aplc, 
Paper, 

Eroct  1  'irilwarc  on, 

Window  wcinlit.-. 
Window  cords, 
Spikes,  holts,  ('to,. 
Anchors,  cti-., 
Hauling, 
Hoisting, 


2,S.J,(H)()  ft.  B.  M.  at  S: 
.■>r,()(MJ  Mj.  ft.  Kross 
.S.'),1()0  t(].  ft.  uro-.i 
7."),(M)() 
.■)i»,4<K)  sq.  ft.  sross 

/ 


KiO  windc.v- 
'2'.\  doors 
l.>  tons 
!),2(M)  lin.  ft. 

2(t(l  k(«s 
"),<MMIll,., 
I.KHI  totLS 
(i.S.',,(lllU 


.")  (10 

!t,<»7o 

,n.-> 

-',.S.")() 

(IS 

(i,,S(),S 

(171 

•l,(MK) 

.  ( H 1.") 

MM 

.">() 

\>M 

(1.(10 

4.-)(> 

.01 

;«i.s 

.'!  (HI 

(KM) 

.01 

2(«» 

.  7."i 

I  MM 

.oU 

;i42 

20,733 


I.ISl    i>K    .Si  u-HIoa 


Iron  and  .■steel: 


Hi. I  .\ 
Hi. I  li 
Hi.)  (• 


$-1:^,725 

40,C.20 

3.S,.-).J0 

liid  I)  (-^t.iirs.  ffiianis,  L.dder  only) 0,085 


Iron  Doors: 


Hi.l  .\ 
Mi. I  B 

I'aintinn: 

Bill  .\ 
Bl.t  l: 
I5id  ( 

Hoofing: 

Bi.l  .\ . 
I'.i.l  B 
Bid  C 

i'lnnihinf;: 

Bi.i  .\ 
liid  I'. 
Hid  C 

PiastcriiiK: 

Bi.l  .\ 
Bid  B 


i»,.">.S'.» 
•J,  102 


:i,,s,->6 
2„S<)7 
2,400 


1,013 
I ,  litS 
1,400 


S,100 
0,440 


70O 
730 


-» :^3s^  tfMMKWii  1^ 


ESTIMATING 
Mill  Work: 

'^''l^ 5,500 

"'-« 5,025 

Glazing: 

l.ifS< 

^ii'i  I* i-i:^ 

Torra  Cofta: 

'*'''-^ i,:{70 

'"'"» 1,125 

Marblo: 

Mid  A ..-., 

*ii  z 

Sheet  Metal: 

f!\-^ 4,280 

,  .  ,            3,o31 

'^    ^ 2,SS8 

'^     ' 2,730 

I'      :      2,188 

""'  '■ 2,059 

Ueiiiforoeil  Concrete  and  Cellar  Flcior: 

"'^'•^ 8.755 

ESTIMATE  SUMMARY 

SUPEHSTUUCTUKE    OnlY 

Thrcx'  Eactory  Huildings,  Chieago 
1  Imilding.  125X17.5,  1  .story  and  hasenient,  A. 
1  iMiilding.     l()Xi:«,  2  .story  and  ha.sement,  B. 
1  building    112X230,  2  story  and  basement,  C. 

Superintendent   (4  mcnths) (      ^q 

I'orenian ..,w^ 

Watelinuin .qq 

Olfiee  and  shetls ofuj 

Telephone c,. 

Harrieade,  (J.jO  ft.  (lineal)            .      joy 

Ae<id4'nt  insurance  -f^ 

Fire  insurance                       Iqq 

Remove  nilibish  and  haul  scaffolding 5{)0 

Water  iM-rmit  5^ 

5  temporary  stjiirj 100 

'''""♦ '..'.  .500 

Hnok,  common  (1077  M.  at  $20.00) 21, .540 

Brick,  face  (136  M.  at  845,00) 6^120 


345 


I 

I 


5 

;       i 


346     ENGINEERING  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


Brick,  firp  (13  M.  at  $40.00) 520 

Tile  coping  (9fi5  1.  f.  at  .20) 193 

Partition  tile,  6  in.  (18,800  sq.  ft.  at  .15) 2,820 

Partition  tiie,  8  in.  (900  sq.  ft.  at  .17) 163 

Stone,  3800  cu.  ft. 6,000 

Concrete  celiar  floor  (7  1/4  in.  at  .18) 8,058 

Concrete,  reinforced 4,155 

CiiriJcntry 27,000 


Mill  work  (Hid  B). 

Mill  work  setting,  30  per  cent . ..  . 

Terra  cotta  ( Bid  B) 

Terra  cotta  setting,  20  per  cent .  . 

Plastering  (Did  B.) 

Painting  ( Hid  C) 

(ilazing  (  Hid  B) 

Marl)le  and  mosaic  (Bid  .\) 

Slieet  metal  ( Bid  D) 

Roofing  ( Bid  C) 

Structural  steel  and  iron  (Hid  C) . 

Iron  doors  (Hid  B) 

Plumbing  (Bid  C) 

Incidentals 


5,025 

1,675 

1,125 

220 

730 

2,400 

1,352 

372 

2,730 

1,400 

38,550 

9,162 

6,440 

3,<H)0 


Profit,  5  per  cent 


$154,810 
7,740 

$162,550 


.,1*»T 


t 


Example  No.  II 

The  second  ctiinate  given  here  is  for  an  automobile  factory, 
T.jfoot  wide,  805  feet  long,  and  four  .stories  high;  with  reinforced 
concrete  friuu(>,  and  wall.s  with  brick  facing;,  but  composed  chiefly 
of  gl!i.s.s.     Alternate  design  also,  on  steel  framing. 
Excavation: 

General,  1(K)X78X8}  ft.  =06,300  cu.  ft.  =2,455  cu.  yd. 

Trench,  mn)  ft.  at  lJX4i  ft.  =  12,825  cu.  ft. 
Piers,  88  at  7}  X7J  X4J  ft.       =22,170  cu.  ft. 
88  at  tij  XOJ  X4J  ft.       =  16,720  cu.  ft. 
7  at  2J  X2J  X4i  ft.       =       196  cu.  ft.  =  1,930  cu.  yd. 
lleinforccd  ('oticrete: 
4  in.  floor  .slabs. 

3  floors,  74  X SCO  ft.  i 
Iroof,     74X860  ft.  |  =^->->'56<>  «q- "• 
6  in  floor  slabs,  <'iOx74  ft.    =     4,440  sq.  ft. 
178  bcam.s,  12  X  18  In.  X    70  ft.  =    12,460  lin.  ft. 
44  beam.s,    0X12  in.  X  780  ft.  =   34,320  lin.  ft. 


ESTIMATING 


Wall  Beams: 

780  ft.  beams  =  18  X  30  in. 
1,560  ft.  beams -16X24  hi. 

780  ft.  beam."  =  16  X  4S  is. 
2,920  ft.  beams  =   8X24  m. 


347 


ff 


6,040 
Columns: 

S8  inside  columns,     16X16  in.  x52  ft.  =4,576  lin.  ft. 
104  outside  columns,  16X24  in.  y  .52  ft.  =5,468  Bn.  ft. 
Colunm  Piers: 

88  piers,  7X7  ft. X 18  in.  1       ,,„_ 

88  piers,  0X6  ft.  X  18  in.  /  =  11-220  cu.  ft. 

860  ft.  parapet,  2J  ft.  X8  in.  =  1,2'JO  cu.  ft. 
and  2,700  8q.  ft.  =     700  cu.  ft. 


1.990  ou.  ft 

Reinforced  Concrete  Summs-ry. 

4  in.    lab,                        2,54,56C 

Sf). 

ft. 

84.853  cu.  ft. 

6  in.  slab,                            4,44( 

H<(. 

ft. 

•-'.220  cu.  ft. 

12X18  in.  beam,              !2,4«0  iin. 

ff. 

18,690  cu.  ft. 

6X12  in.  beam,             34,320  lin. 

ft. 

17,160  cu.  ft. 

18X30  in.  beam,                   780  lin. 

ft. 

2,925  cu.  ft. 

16X24  in.  beam,                I. ,560  lin. 

ft. 

4,160  cu.  ft. 

16X48  in.  beam,                   780  lin. 

ft. 

4,160  cu.  ft. 

8X24  in.  beam,               2,920  iin. 

ft. 

3,890  cu.  ft. 

Cols.  16X16  in.,                4, '.76  lin. 

ft. 

9,152  cu.  ft. 

Cols.  16X24  in.,                5,-*08  lin. 

ft. 

13,500  cu.  ft. 

Cols,  bases, 

1 

11,220  cu.  ft. 

71,930  cu.  ft. 

Forms  for  slabs. 

260,000  ».-(.  ft. 

Forms  for  beams, 

52 

820  lin.  ft. 

Forms  for  cols.. 
Cost. 

9,980  lin.  ft. 

Concrete,                 172,000  cu.  ft. 

at. 

$  23 

=   S  39,  ,'560 

i^teel,                                 570  tmm 

mt 

30  00 

28,800 

Steel  hauling,                576  r^ms 

at 

50 

288 

Steel  erecting,                576  tons 

St 

4 

00 

2,300 

Forms,  slabs,          26f».iKK)  si),  ft. 

at 

.06 

15.600 

Forms,  beams,         5-',»(»0  iin.  ft. 

at 

.30 

=        i.'>,H40 

Forms,  cols.,             lO.tHM)  lin.  ft. 

at 

.40 

4,000 

Damp  proof,               3,2(K)  scj.  :t. 

at 

05 

160 

1  in.  surfacing,       260,(K)fi  wj.  it. 

»t 

.05 

7..S00 

16  stairs,  4  ft.  wide. 

2,400 

»116,7 


.'MS    h'xaixKKHixa  of  shops  axd  factories 


Hrick. 


Foundation 


Tunnel  S-in.  wull,  18  ft.X7,S  ff. 

210  ft.  X-iii.  wall,  S  ft. 

200  ft.  i;-in.  null,  10  ft. 
20  ft.    17-in.  wall,  10  f(. 

■■(70  ft.     S-in.  wall,    7  ff. 

.S70  ft.  12-in.  wall,  7  ft. 
1,170  ft.    S-in.  rtall,    7  ft. 


I'irst  Story. 

44  pilastcr-s,  5  ft.  XS  in.  thickx  II  ft.  high 
aOO-ft.  wall,  ,S  in.  thick  X  U  ft.  hij;h 


Area  of  wail  in  8(juarc  feet. 
S-in.       12-in.        17-in. 
wall  wall 


50-ft.  wall, 

210-ft.  wall, 

SO-ft.  wall. 


17  in.  thick  <14ft.  high 

8  in.  thick  X  14  ft    high 

17  in.  thickx  14  ft.  high 


wall 
1,404 
1,080 


2,000 
2(H) 


2,om) 
10,290 


C,0<M) 


l'),'JOl        0,090        2,800 


S-in.  wall 

17-in.  wall 

2, 120 

."),040 

700 

2,940 

1,120 

10,400 


1,820 


Second  Story. 

210.ft. 

wall. 

8  in.  X  12  ft. 

_ 

2,520 

;Ui0-ft. 

wall. 

8  in.  X  12  ft. 

,- 

4, .•520 

SO-ft. 

wall. 

17  in.X12  ft. 

-^ 

S(»-ff. 

wall, 

17  in.  V12  ft. 

-- 

Tliinl  story,  same  as  .second. 
I'ourtii  story,  .sjinie  as  second. 
Tent  huu.su.      Solid  brick  walls. 


4  pt.  ho.  :jOX   4  ft.XSin..      480 
Opt.  ho.  00 '- I.")  ft.  X  8  in.  =5,400 


<>,840 


960 
900 


1,920 


Hnck  .Suniinarv. 


Solid  wall  in  foundation. 

l."),904  K(].  ft.  wall,      8  in.  at  14  bricks 

0,090  «(j.  ft.  wall,     12  in.  at  21  brickK 

2,8(K)i.l.  ff.  wall,     28  in.  at  28  bricks 


224,000  bricks 

128, 1(H)  bricks 

78,4(M)  brickK 


430,500  bricks 


Hollow  ami  face  brick. 

First  story, 
Scconil  story, 
Tliird  story, 
Fourth  story, 
IViit  house, 


ESTIMATING 

8-in.  wall 

10,HH)s.].  ft. 
0,840  wj.  ft. 

fi.S  10  M|.  ft. 

6,8^J0  S(].  ft. 
"i..S.H()  H,|,  ft. 


349 


17-in.  wall 
l,.s:.'0«,|.  ft. 

1,920  s<i.  ft. 
1,020  s.|.  ft. 
1,920  s<|.  ft. 


30,800  S(i.  ft.     7,580  sq.ft. 

30,800  (.,,.  ft.    K-in.  wall  at  14  bricks    r)l.^,,2no  bricks 
7,580  f(|   ft.  17-in.  wall  at  2S  bricks    212,240  bricks 


727,440  bricks 


Face  brick  =40,100, 

Hollow  l>rick  =  727,440 -40, 100  =  0S7,.340  bricks. 

Ueiuforccd  concrete:   dcsiRn  with  steel  framing. 

Floors  and  roof,  4  74  X  860  ft. 

4-in.  floor  slabs,  2.54,600  sq.  ft.  = 

0-in.  floor  slabs,  4,440  sci.  ft. 

12xl8-in.  beam,  12,400  lin.  ft.  = 

0X12-in.  beam,  21,900  lin.  ft.  .- 

Column  ba.S(-.s,  410  cu.  yd.  = 


84,S.5;i  cu.  ft. 
2.220 
18,090 
12,480 
11,220 


129,403 


Forms  for  slabs 
Forms  for  beams 

Cost. 


2r>0,(XH)  s(|    ft. 
=   ;J7,420  lin.  ft. 


Concrete,  130,000  cu.  ft. 
Steel,  4(X)  tons 
Steel,  400  tons,  hauling 
Steel,  400  tons,  setting 
Forms,  slabs,  2fiO,000  sq.  ft. 
Forms,  beams,  38.0(M)  lin.  ft 
1-in.  surfacing,  260,000  sq.  ft.  at 
10  stairs,  4  ft.  wide  at 


Brick:   design  with  steel  framing. 


at     .$  .SO    -= 
at  50. (H)    - 


.50 
4  00 
.06 
..30 
.03 
150  00 


.?39,000 

20,000 

2.")0 

1,600 

15,600 

11,400 

7,800 

2,400 


$98,050 


lO-in.  wall  beams.     0.2(H)  lin.  ft.    15,l,i5  m.  ft. 
16-in.  wall  cols.,         5,408  lin.  ft.    l,l,,->00  cu.  ft. 


1*1 

11 


28,600  at  21  =<)00,600  bricks 


350     ENGISKERI.SG  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


Ahovp  divided  as  follows: 
Face  brick,  1(X),0(M)  at 

Common  bricks,  600,0<)0  at 

2.U)  Mtone  hills,  1 7  ft .  long  =  .1910  ft      at 
88  Col.  casings,  4  ft.  around  X  5()  ft . 
-352  M.  at 


$tr,.     =. 

S4,500 

18.      - 

a,(KX) 

.50- 

1,065 

»I8.       - 


0,330 
21,791 


LIST  OF  .SUB-BIDS 
Round  high-carbon  steel  bars 


3/  4to  1/4  in., 

SI 

.52  1/2 

5  8  in., 

1 

.57  1/2 

1/2  in., 

1. 

62  1/2 

F.O.B.  in 

car  load 

3/8  in., 

1 

77  1/2 

List  of  Sul>-bids, 

continued 

, 

Sm 

L-et 

Metal  and  Roofing: 

Coi 

k'ering 

Total 

Metal 

Doors 

For 

For 

only 

only 

cone. 
de.sign 

steel 
design 

Bid  \.     Gutters,  cornice,  flash- 
ing, conductor  heads $1,0()0     

Hid  B: 

For  concrete 1,483         $931      

For  steel  :>anie 1,834      

Bill  V 995        1,025     

Bid  D 1,101      

Bid  E $2,246 

Bid  F 3,454 

Bid  <J 3,000 

Bid  H 2,900 

Bid  1 3,063 

Bid  J 3,44S 

(•lazing: 

Bid  A 

Painting: 

Painting  and 
glazing 

Bid  A $7,480 

Hid  B 

Hide 

Bid  D 

Hi  I  I". 8,.300 

Hid  F 9,150 

Bid  (', 8,426 

Bid  H 9,925 


$2,884 
4,172 
3,408 
3,800 
3,609 
3,905 

$3,725 

Painting 
only 


$4,.300 
4,500 
4,656 


ESTIMATING 


361 


Carpentry: 


Mill  If  windows 

work  arc  <1<;- 

only  ducted 

Bid  A $4,000 

Mid  H 4,133 

Bid  C $10,»85  

Bid  I) 

BidE 


Total 

17,482 

10,431 
15,134 


Heating: 


As  per 
plan 


Bid  A $19,308 

Bid  B 14,684 

BidC 16,300 

Bid  D 15,664 

Bid  E' 15,700 

BidF 14,939 


With 

aebeHtos 
covering 

$18,108 
13,907 
16,5(J0 
15,044 


Magnesia 
covering 

$22,208 


Air  cell 
covering 


15,(MK)        $14,300 


14,611 


Plumbing:  Per  plan 

Bid  A $10,287 

Bid  B 8,974 


BidC. 
BidD. 


Miscellaneous  Iron: 


12,535 

F.  O.  B. 

Bid  A $5,082 

Bid  B 

BidC 3,324 

BidD 6,859 

Structural  Steel  (for  steel  frame      F.  O.  B. 
design) 

Bid  A 

Bid  B  

Bid  C $72,950 

Bid  D 75,000 


Special 
$  8,987 

11,482 

Erected 

$8,279 

Erected 

$86,159 
82,370 
86,600 


Excavating: 
Bid  A: 

Grading     $2,420 

Cr<pck  spwcf  for  dnunago 2,230 

12-in.  P''  ck  ducts  for  heating 735 

'  Vacuur    system,  $17,402,  deduct  $270  if  air  cell  is  ufcd  in  place  of 
uttgrasia  pipt  cover. 


;1 


li  iH 


352    i:.\(ii\]:i':jn.\<,-  of  siiors   \\i>  r.u  TmuEs 


i:si  !\|  \Ti;  SCMMAHV 
Tor  AutiitiKiliili-  lactory  with  Coiifretc  I  niniitii; 


Kxrjiviition,  (teller;!. ', 
llxoiiviiticiii,  fri  lu'li, 
Hcinfi)r('C(|  eimcri'ti', 
Steel  I'.  ().  H 
Steel  liiitiliiiK, 
Steel  seltiiit;, 
riirms,  sjiilis, 
ForiiLs,  IxMfns, 
I'liriMs,  foluniiis, 
I-in.  surfiifitii;. 


J  I.Vi  y.N. 
X.'XW 
172,(MKI  cii.  ft. 
TiUS  tons 
.57(5  tons 
.'"ufi  tons 
;.'(M),(KMI  .s.|,  ft. 
rCHOOliri.  ft. 
Kt.lKM)  lin,  ft. 
2(((t,INM)  N<|.   ft. 


Iti  roiicrete  stairs,   I  ft.  wiile 

Hasemellt  flour,  .'>(i,(HKI  .sq.  ft. 

Hrick,  eoiiiiiKiii,  4.'<:.>,(K)0 

Hriok,  liollow,  ().S7,;UK) 

Hriek,  face,  1(),(KH) 

Hriek,  fancy  fare,  ;t,l(M) 

Tile  edping,  210  liii.  ft. 

H.V<lri)litliic  coatiiiK,  7.(MHI  k(|.  ft. 

Stone  sills,  17  ft.  long  lU 

Cement  eeiliii;;  wash,       .•((Kt.lHH)  sc]    ft.  at 

Iron  work,  V.  ().  IV, 

Iron  work,  erection,  2(1  jier  cent., 

Kinnear  floors, 

.Mill  work,  eri'cteil, 

Tin  doors  and  eoveiiiisr 

llarilware,  jiixoN  ar.!  screws, 

Hardware,  lire  <loor  (ittinKs, 

i'aiiitiii);, 

(ilaziii);. 

Sheet  nulai  .-iihl  roofinn  ('suK  l,i,l  pl), 

IMinnhiiin, 

lli'.i'ia^;, 

Superintendent  for  I.')  inontlisat  S'.'tK), 

l-orernan  for  l.">  inonth.s  at  %\M, 

\\  atchiiiaii, 

'nieplione, 

Wat.r, 

Hiilihish  clearing, 

Water  closet, 

Storage  slied.s, 

Insurance, 

I.ial.dity 

Hond,  1  per  'm  :iI.  on  1    J  of  eontract, 

Temporary  stairs.  Id  sets  at  .$."iO 

Tools  and  pin;:'. 

Traveling  ex{>ense, 


..•.(I 

.  2.{ 

."ill    (M) 

..V) 
I    (K) 

.IMi 

.;«) 
Ill 

l.">()  (K) 

11 

IS  (Ml 

Mi   IK) 

■l.'i   (M) 

S()  (HI 

'2'> 

.()( 

.(H),"j 


« 


1,227 

.(!),.•)««) 

2.S.,S(H( 

2H.S 

2..«H) 

I. ').)»)() 

l.">,.SI(t 

l.tNH) 

7,,S(H) 

2.1(H) 

7,.SI() 

7,77('> 

1I,IHH) 

1,.S(K( 

240 

M 

280 

:?(K) 

'l,(HKI 
■S<K) 
77.5 

1(),;{(H» 

2,2.")() 
I,2(H» 

:<(M) 

.'{,I(H) 

:!,.")(H» 

2,2r><) 

S,2()0 

14,(t()f) 

.•i,(KM) 

2,.5(K) 

1,(MK) 

KM) 

.500 

l.O'K) 

50 

500 

400 

2.500 

7.50 

500 

5.00  • 

200 


ESTIMATISa 


353 


HuililiriK  |M-rmit, 
Inciili'iittiN,  1  |«T  criit., 
170  lioriiiRs, 


3no 


rrtifit,  .">  p<T  i-fiit., 


11,100 


t2:i2,0t3 


33 


I 

ii  \m 


MICROCOPY    RESOLUTION    TEST   CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No    2| 


1.0 


I.I 


1^  IS 

2.0 


1.25   i  1.4 


1.8 


1.6 


A  APPLIED  IM/^GE     Inc 

^^  ''-■b*    fo^l  Mo"  ^"eff' 

S^^  ^jcfieste'.  New  toi-i,    '46C9   uSA 

'^^  ''6)  482  -  0300  -  Phone 

^=     ''6)  288  -  5989  -  Fo. 


m 


CHAPTER  XXX 
CONSTRUCTION 

Having  completed  all  the  designs  and  specifications  for  a  plant, 
it  is  then  the  duty  of  the  engineer  to  secure  estimates  and  tenders, 
to  place  or  assist  in  placing  the  contract  for  construction  and  to 
superinte    j  the  work. 

Construction  work  may  be  carried  on  either  under  salaried 
superintendents  employed  by  the  owner,  or  the  work  may  be 
given  out  in  contracts.  In  the  first  method,  the  superintendent 
must  employ  men  in  the  various  trades,  buying  only  such  goods 
as  he  is  unable  to  produce.  When  construction  work  is  done  by  a 
contractor,  he  may  be  paid  in  any  one  of  the  following  ways: 

1.  A  lump  sum  for  the  whole  work. 

2.  Cost  price  plus  a  percentage, 

3.  Cost  price  plus  a  fixed  sum. 

4.  Cost  price  plus  a  percentage  in  inverse  proportion  to  the 
cost. 

Each  of  these  methods  has  some  advantages,  No.  1  being  the 
simplest  to  keep  track  of,  and  on  which  to  make  fmal  settlement. 
With  No.  2  there  is  always  the  incentive  for  the  contractor  to 
swell  the  cost  as  his  own  profits  increase  in  proportion,  but  in 
No.  3  this  incentive  disappears,  for  the  contractor's  profit  is 
fi.\ed  and  independent  of  the  cost  of  the  building  to  the  owner.  In 
No.  4  it  is  plainly  to  the  contractor's  interest  to  keep  the  cost 
down  to  a  minimum,  for  the  less  the  owner  has  to  pay,  the  more 
the  contractor  receives. 

Estimates  and  Tenders. — A  careful  selection  should  be  made 
when  sending  out  invitations  for  tenders,  that  bids  may  be 
received  from  people  in  govjd  standing,  who  will  do  good  work  in 
an  honest  way.  In  order  to  avoid  local  combinations,  or  the 
collusion  of  bidders,  invitations  should  be  sent  to  concerns  widely 
separated  from  each  other.  The  engineer  is  generally  better  able 
than  the  owner  to  select  the  bidders,  for  an  acquaintance  with  the 
builders  is  part  of  his  business,  but  the  owner  will  probably  want 
prices  from  people  that  he  knows.     If  bids  are  received  from  a 

354 


CONSTRUCTION 


355 


few  general  contractors  on  the  work  as  a  whole  and  on  the 
diffoient  branches  of  work  from  sub-contractors,  the  engineer 
will  then  know  the  cost  in  detail,  and  he  can  award  the  work  to  a 
general  contractor  in  one  part,  or  separately  to  sub-contractors, 
as  economy  and  expediency  may  direct.  He  should  receive 
unit  prices  for  any  kind  of  work,  such  as  found.!  tions,  which  may 
ultimately  be  mon?  or  less  than  shown  on  the  drawings.  If 
given  out  in  many  parts,  some  one  of  the  sub-contractors  must 
be  placed  in  charge,  and  his  contract  must  be  so  worded,  with 
extra  compensation  for  such  service. 

If  inquiries  are  made  by  contractors  respecting  any  uncer- 
tainties in  the  plans  or  specifications,  they  should  be  answered  by 
duplicate  letters,  sending  a  copy  to  each  bidder,  that  all  may 
have  exactly  the  same  data  and  information.  Sufficient  time 
should  be  given  for  making  careful  estimates,  for  if  hurried  too 
much,  contractors  will  add  a  percentage  for  uncertainties,  and 
bids  will  be  unreasonably  high.  Bi  Is  should  be  submitted  in 
sealed  envelopes  plainly  marked  on  the  outside  with  the  word 
"Tender",  so  they  will  not  be  opened  until  the  proper  time,  a 
definte  date  having  been  previously  set  by  the  engineer,  after 
wli'fh  no  further  bids  would  be  received.  A  blank  form  of  con- 
tract should  be  enclosed  with  the  invitations  for  tenders,  so  the 
contractor  may  see  just  what  he  is  expected  to  sign.  This  con- 
tract should  be  drawn  up  by  an  attorney,  from  data  and  require- 
ments supplied  to  him  by  the  engineer  and  owner. 

When  time  for  receiving  bids  has  expired,  and  they  are  all 
in  possession  of  the  engineer,  they  should  then  be  opened  by  the 
engineer  and  owner  together,  and  the  various  items  tabulated 
for  easy  comparison,  and  in  making  such  comparison  it  must  be 
carefully  noted  just  what  is  included  in  the  price.  The  lowest 
bids  by  containing  something  that  is  not  required  sometimes  ap- 
pear to  be  high,  and  their  relative  values,  are  not  appreciated 
until  they  are  all  thoroughly  examined  as  to  the  work  included. 

Contracts. — The  engineer  should  remember  that  up  to  this 
time,  contractors  expecting  or  hoping  to  secure  profitable  work, 
have  been  free  with  offers  and  promises  and  have  probably  shown 
nothing  but  good  will.  But  with  the  signing  of  a  contract, 
new  conditions  begin,  for  motives  are  now  different,  the  contrac- 
tor desiring  to  make  the  largest  possible  profit  for  himself,  and  the 
owner  to  get  the  best  building  he  can  for  the  least  money  and  to 
get  it  at  the  lime  agreed  upon.     As  the  mechanical  equipment  is 


3r.G    i:.\(ji.\i-:khi.\g  of  shops  axd  factories 


U  A 


HO  (lifT(>roiit  to  the  build'ng  construction,  tlie  installiition  of  this 
is  usually  let  in  a  sepunitc  contract.  This  will  include  the 
lu-atiiif;,  lifihtiuR,  plumbing,  power  and  water  supply,  fire  pro- 
tection, and  elevators.  These  are  wholly  the  designs  of  me- 
chanical engineers. 

Superintendence. — This  work  may  be  done  either  by  the  owner 
with  the  assistance  of  a  salaried  superinten<lent,  or  under  the 
direction  of  the  engineer.  The  latter  method  is  without  question 
the  best,  for  the  man  who  produces  a  design  certainly  knows 
better  than  any  one  else,  how  he  wants  it  carried  out. 

Engineers  and  architects  who  give  their  best  thoiight  to 
(luestions  of  design  usually  have  associated  with  them  men  who 
are  efficient  in  superintendence,  and  many  of  the  larger  ofncea 
have  regularly  organized  departments  for  construction  and 
sui)erintendence.  Yards  and  grounds  must  l)e  laid  out  with 
their  tracks  and  sidings,  buildings  erected  and  equipment  in- 
stalled, including  cranes,  special  machinery  and  mechanical 
installation.  As  the  work  progresses  monthly  estimates  and 
re])orts  of  the  amount  of  work  done  must  be  made  by  the  engineer 
and  submitted  to  the  owner,  for  on  these  the  contractor  receives 
his  progress  payments.  Photographs  should  be  freely  made,  as 
they  are  a  sure  record  of  conditions,  and  often  avoid  or  settle 
futuredit  putes.  Harmony  in  dealings  is  always  desirable,  and  yet 
the  engineer  mu.st  not  alwaj's  conciliate  merely  to  pi-eserve  peace. 

When  construction  is  completed  and  the  plant  finished  in  all 
its  parts,  the  site  should  be  put  in  a  clean  and  neat  condition 
ready  for  acceptaiu-e  by  the  owner.  Final  estimates  must  then 
be  made  by  tin  engineer,  and  when  the  work  has  been  accepted 
and  paid  for,  the  engineer's  duties  terminate. 


'sim:,-'^'mf^;mn^^^w.':z^:^m^tS£rMsm 


CHAPTER  XXXI 


WELFARE  FEATURES 


A  book  on  modern  factories  would  not  be  complete  without 
reference  to  the  provisions  which  are  now  so  genonilly  made  for 
tlie  comfort  and  welfare  of  employees.  Such  measures  are  intro- 
duced not  for  philanthropic  but  for  purely  commercial  reasons, 
because  "  it  pays."  Under  agreeable  conditions,  men  and  women 
will  do  more  and  better  work  than  they  would  if  uncomfortable 
or  dissatisfied.  Establishments  have  found  that  in  order  to 
produce  economically,  they  must  permanently  retain  a  large 
proportion  of  their  operatives  because  the  constant  training  of 
new  ones  is  too  expensive.  Attractive  conditions  are  therefore 
created  to  draw  and  hold  employees  and  keep  them  contented, 
in  order  to  increase  theif  productiveness  and  efficiency.  It  is 
difficult  to  compute  the  money  value  of  this  increase,  but  there 
is  no  doubt  that  willing  and  cheerful  workers  can  do  more  t  iian 
those  who  labor  imder  compulsion. 

The  subject  will  be  discussed  under  the  following  lunidings: 

1.  Social  relations. 

2.  Health  conditions. 

3.  Pleasant  surroundings. 

4.  Material  benefits. 

5.  Educational  advantages. 

G.  Opportunity  for  recreation. 

Social  Relations. — The  beginning  of  a  new  era  in  factory 
construction  was  the  outgrowth  of  necessity.  That  old  time 
friendship  and  acquaintance  which  once  existed  between  owner 
and  employee,  had  long  since  ceased;  and  in  many  cases,  in 
order  to  earn  their  daily  b'cad,  men  were  driven  by  necessity  to 
work  in  dirty  and  grimy  shops,  going  daily  to  their  work  with 
no  more  willingness  than  woidd  be  aroused  in  going  to  a  prison. 
Under  such  conditions  they  gave  only  enough  service  to  hold 
their  place,  and  changed  often  from  one  factory  to  another,  to 
relieve  the  drudgery  and  monotony  of  life.  Little  or  no  interest 
was  shown  in  them,  and  constant  friction  existed  between  the 

357 


-^n^^^^ 


iS-'^K«i'^i^^^ 


358     ENGINEERING  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


!"^f 


workmen  and  their  foremen  who  were  intolerant  and  domineering, 
much  like  slave  drivers.  Under  the  lash  of  necessity,  the  sullen 
worker  produced  only  when  watched  and  driven,  and  balked  at 
every  opportunity.  When  conditions  finally  became  intolerable 
for  the  worker,  and  without  profit  to  the  owner,  a  change  was 
inevitable. 

Conditions  in  some  places  have  now  swung  tdmost  to  the  other 
extreme,  and  welfan  ''oatures  are  introduced  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  detract  attention  from  the  company's  business.  Largo 
indu.stries  now  make  the  interest  of  their  workers  a  definite 
part  of  their  business,  and  for  this  purpose  a  welfare  manager 
and  social  secretary  are  appointed,  one  each  for  the  men'.s  and 
women's  departments  respectively.  The  duty  of  these  persons 
is  to  study  a-  '.  care  for  the  workers  needs,  and  to  act  as  inter- 
mediary between  them  and  the  owners.  Diplomatic  persons  in 
these  positions  soon  gain  general  confidence,  and  men  and  women 
will  freely  tell  their  wants  to  them,  with  prospect  of  relief. 
Under  the  new  and  better  r<>gime,  men  and  women  treated  as 
human  beings  have  regained  self  respect.  Women  workers, 
who  were  .ormerly  all  "girls,"  "hands,"  or  "help,"  now  receive 
the  more  respectful  "Miss,"  and  men,  when  passing  through 
the  women's  workrooms,  remove  their  hats  as  they  would  at 
home.  Under  these  conditions  employers  rightfully  expect  a 
better  education  in  those  that  they  employ,  and  in  many  factories 
graduation  from  a  high  school  is  now  one  of  the  necessary 
qualifications. 

The  attitude  of  the  factory  to  the  public  is  also  changed,  for 
a  welcome  to  visitors  is  now  a  common  and  definite  policy. 
Reception  rooms  are  provided  and  furnished,  and  guides  are 
delegated  to  conduct  persons  about,  often  meeting  visitors  with 
a  conveyance  at  the  nearest  depot,  and  escorting  them  to  the 
works.  Balconies  or  galleries  afford  a  panorama  of  the  work 
in  operation,  and  elevators  lead  to  an  observation  tower  where 
a  view  is  obtained  of  the  plant  and  j.s  surroundings.  Now 
factory  conditions  are  so  greatly  appreciated  by  the  public  that 
their  owners  or  managers  are  usually  entitled  to  respect  and 
confidence.  One  modem  and  almost  ideal  plant  for  which  the 
writer  made  elaborate  plans  was  so  highly  esteemed  bj  the 
citizens  that  the  return  ci  its  president  from  a  world  tour  was 
accompanied  by  a  great  demonstration.  A  special  train  with 
a  hundred  representative  men  »vent  out  to  meet  him  and  escort 


-mmmm^^.m,iJL-4  ^v^mm^ 


'MM* 


-*. 


^S 


WELFARE  FEATURES 


360 


him  home  and  40,000  people  paraded  the  streets  in  his  honor 
and  presented  him  with  a  loving  cup. 

Health  Conditions. — No  argument  is  needed  to  show  that 
healthy  bodies  are  essential  to  efficient  work.  The  following 
health  requirements  should  therefore  be  maintained : 

1.  General  cleanliness  of  buildings  and  occupants. 

2.  Abundance  of  washing  and  bathing  facilities. 

3.  Good  light,  and  pure  ai''  of  the  right  temperature  and 
humidity. 

4.  Regular  working  hours,  with  sufficient  time  for  rest  and 
recreation. 

With  these  requirements  fulfilled,  there  should  be  enthusiasm 
during  working  hours. 

In  order  to  start  right,  applicants  should  pass  a  health  exam- 
ination before  being  given  employment. 

The  building  should  be  swept  daily,  and  washed  out  once  a 
week,  and  this  work  will  require  the  service  of  one  janitor  for 
about  fifty  employees,  or  four  for  every  acre  of  floor  space. 
Spitting  should  be  prohibited.  In  some  plants  where  a  large 
number  of  women  are  employed,  they  may  be  supplied  with 
clean  aprons  and  half  sleeves  twice  per  week.  This  will  average 
about  ten  articles  per  week  for  the  laundry  for  each  person.  In 
large  establishments  a  steam  laundry  may  be  maintained,  and 
to  avoid  disagreeable  odors  it  should  be  on  an  upper  floor. 
Windows  should  be  regularly  cleaned  and  curtains  renewed 
when  they  are  soiled.  In  shops  as  elsewhere,  order  and  cleanli- 
ness promote  self  respect,  but  interest,  inspiration  and  energy 
are  lost  Then  working  amid  dirty  surroundings. 

Lavatories  and  shower  baths  are  now  prescribed  by  law  in 
many  states,  and  some  shops  permit  employees  to  take  two  baths 
per  week  in  summer  and  one  in  winter  during  working  hours. 
Occupants  in  some  departments  of  paint  works  are  required  to 
bathe  daily  to  prevent  possibility  of  lead  poisoning.  Hot  and 
cold  water,  towels  and  soap  should  be  provided  free,  for  if  any 
charge  is  made,  their  general  use  will  be  limited.  Plants  where 
light  machinery  is  made  should  have  one  shower  bath  for  every 
twenty  to  thirty  persons,  and  some  foundries  hav^  one  bath  and 
shower  for  every  man.  A  swimming  tank  in  the  basement  may 
be  supplied  for  those  who  like  to  use  it. 

Good  light  and  pure  air  are  essential  to  health.  A  vacuum 
system  should  be  used  in  polishing  rooms,  and  suction  hoods 


:  i 


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3G0     I-.\(  ERISG  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 

liung  ovor  tiil)ios  wlure  dust  or  odors  are  evolved.  This  ia 
ospecitilly  iinportaiit  in  shops  making  (loth  or  cotton  goods, 
where  the  dust  often  jjroduces  throat  and  In  .'isease.  In  one 
cotton  mill  in  England,  no  less  than  7-1  per  eent.  of  all  the  workers 
were  thus  affected.  Air  can  be  cooled  ia  summer  by  passing  it 
through  a  sj)ray  chamber  before  forcing  it  uj)  through  the  build- 
ing, and  at  forges  and  rolling  mills  this  may  be  actual  economy, 
as  it  permits  continuous  instead  of  spasmodic  work  before  the  hot 
and  open  fires. 

1  Inergy  should  be  cfMi,'-    ved  for  usefid  purposes,  and  operatives 
and  especially  women  Id,  in  nudti-story  buildings  have  free 

use  of  elevators.  W  .i  should  ulso  have  high-backed  chairs 
aiul  footstools  for  occasional  or  continuous  use,  and  they  should 
be  dismi.ssed  ten  to  fifteen  nunufes  earlier  than  men  at  night  and 
come  later  in  the  morning,  so  they  nuiy  find  .seats  in  the  street 
ears.  Some  shojw  also  give  morning  and  afternoon  recess  of 
ten  minutes  for  relaxation.  Shops  emi)Ioying  women  should 
have  a  rest  room  with  comfortable  chairs  and  lounges,  and  large 
works  often  have  a  regular  nurse  in  attendance.  This  room 
should  contain  a  case  of  nu'dicines,  jjjusters,  bandages  and  other 
things  needful  in  emergencies,  and  arrangements  should  be  made 
with  i)hysicians  that  one  will  always  l)e  within  immediate  reach. 
Foremen  .should  be  instructed  in  inethod.s  of  rendering  aid  hi 
case  of  accident.  The  shop  slumld  occasionally  be  vi.sited  by 
the  company's  oculist,  to  .serve  any  who  nuiy  need  attention. 

Pleasant  Surroundings.— Next  to  healthful  coiulitions,  pleasai. 
surroundings  are  perhaps  the  mo.st  attractive.  The  large 
facilities  in  this  direction  are  offered  in  suburban  districts,  wherr- 
enough  land  is  obtaimible  for  a  lawn  or  park.  In  laiidscape 
gardening,  large  grass  areas  should  renuiin  unbroken,  and 
shrubbery  and  flowers  concentrated  in  nuisses.  A  pond  or 
lagoon  adds  beauty  by  its  contrast.  The  roofs  of  nudti-story 
shops,  which  are  usually  neglected,  may  ])e  turr-d  into  a  roof 
garden  or  promeiuide,  and  i)artly  coven-d  with  canvas  awnings. 

The  building  interior  may  be  i)ainted  in  pleasing  colors,  light 
green  or  brown  being  suitable  for  the  walls,  with  a  dado  of  darker 
shade,  and  cream  or  some  warmer  tint  for  the  ceiling.  White 
wash  for  this  purpose  is  no  longer  favored.  A  limited  number  of 
mottoes  or  pictures  on  the  walls  are  appropriate  to  relieve  their 
monotony,  and  these  may  occasionally  be  changed  or  rearranged. 
Machinery  which  is  enameled,  or  painted  a  nickel  color,  allds 


"mfm^T^^ms^^MmsfaBm^i^tm^^'^^m^'^^^. 


T^^0 


WEL FA UK  FEA T UKES 


3(11 


greatly  to  the  nppparunce  and  clpanllnofls  i)f  the  shop,  for  wlicu 
it  is  soiloil  it  can  easily  bo  washed  off  apiiii.  In  .<oine  larger 
printing  establishments,  as  that  of  the  Medraw-IIill  Publishing 
Company,  the  machinery  is  enameled  white,  thus  assuring 
cleanliness,  attractiveness,  an<l  better  light. 

Material  Benefits. — Featiires  which  result  in  material  benefit 
to  the  workers  are  often  most  ai)i)reciated  and  thesi;  inclmio 
co-operative  or  profit  sharing  systems,  membership  in  insurance 
or  mutual  aid  associations,  and  the  ^)rovisi(m  of  meals  at  cost 
j)rice.  Profit  sharing,  used  by  such  ccmcems  as  Proctor  and 
(iamble  of  Cincinnati,  offer  an  incentive  to  effort,  and  the  sug- 
gestion system  used  by  the  National  Cash  Register  Company, 
and  previously  described,  offers  prizes  to  those  who  sui)i)ly 
valuai)le  ideas  or  suggestions  which  can  be  utilized.  The  value 
of  tiiis  system  is  evi(h'nt  when  it  is  considered  that  each  trained 
worker  is  a  specialist  in  his  own  line,  and  should  know  more 
about  its  details  than  anyone  else.  He  should  therefore  be  able 
to  suggest  improvements  that  nuiy  not  have  occurred  to  others. 
The  system  is  valuai)le  also  in  the  sales  department.  Workers 
all  beconu'  i)artners  in  the  business,  and  instead  of  being  a  one- 
or  two-man  industry,  the  business  maj'  be  increased  to  a  thou- 
sand-brain-power or  more,  depeiuling  upon  the  number  that  are 
(■mployed. 

Mutual  aid  or  fraternal  associations  may  be  organized  for  the 
benefit  of  a  single  industry,  the  object  being  to  suj)ply  at  least 
a  half  income  ior  woikei-s  that  are  sick.  Dues  can  be  propor- 
tioned to  the  needs,  though  one-half  of  1  per  cent,  of  the  regular 
wages  is  usiuilly  enough.  A  shop  with  one  thousand  employees 
would  at  this  rate  contribute  $oO  to  $75  per  week,  but  if  more 
money  is  needed  the  dues  can  be  increased,  and  if  all  is  not 
required,  collections  can  be  temporarily  suspended.  Experience 
shows  that  medical  service  for  such  an  association  woulil  cost 
about  $500  per  year,  for  there  would  seldom  be  more  than  hrce 
or  four  sick  at  one  time. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  practical  lienefit  that  can  be  offered  to 
workers  is  the  supply  of  sid)stantial  hot  dinners  at  cost  price. 
Men  bringing  cold  and  often  poorly  cooked  food  naturally 
fatigue  sooner  than  others  who  are  better  nourished.  One  large 
factory  emplo3-ing  over  3000  persons  supplies  noon  lunches  to 
women  at  a  charge  of  only  25  cents  per  week,  and  to  men  for 
about  $1  per  week,  and  those  who   must   work  overtime  are 


^M^^y^-ymm"^ 


i^^yl 


i\?j. 


IM^^ 


p* 


Mi 


362     ENGINEERING  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 

given  evening  dinner  at  the  factory.  At  the  Krupp  works  in 
Gerniiiny  the  familicK  of  the  workers  are  allowed  to  unite  in  the 
company  dining  hall,  and  in  some  plants  the  dining  halls  over- 
looking a  lawn  or  park  are  provided  with  wide  verandas  or 
balconies  on  which  meals  are  served  in  summer.  Quick  lunch 
counters  nmy  also  be  maintained,  and  other  rouias  with  tables 
and  benches  only  for  those  who  prefer  to  bring  their  food. 
Under  good  management  the  preparation  of  meals  will  require 
one  cook  and  two  or  three  assistants  for  every  200  persons.  It 
would  seem  that  many  works,  especially  those  in  Europe,  are 
vying  with  each  other  in  the  abundance  of  their  altruistic 
measures. 

Educational  Measures. — Work  in  this  direction  is  educational, 
entertaining,  and  a  recreation.  A  library  of  books  and  all  the 
magazines  and  journals  relating  to  the  particular  business  should 
be  within  reach  of  all,  because  educated  minds  are  more  efficient 
than  others.  In  large  works  truck  loads  of  books  may  be 
circulated  through  the  shops  during  the  noon  hour,  though  it 
is  usually  best  for  everyone  to  have  a  walk  in  the  open  air  after 
lunch  and  before  returning  to  the  afternoon's  work.  Technical 
and  trade  papers  and  journals  are  a  great  benefit  to  the  work*  rs 
and  consequently  to  the  factory  owners,  for  i  ^ividuals  can 
seldom  afford  more  than  one  or  two  of  their  own.  They  should, 
therefore  be  freely  supplied  as  an  important  part  of  the  shop 
equipment. 

Evening  (lasses  and  lecture  courses  are  another  means  of 
education  for  those  who,  from  lack  of  time  and  money  would 
otherwise  be  without  them.  Large  works  frequently  erect  a 
separate  building  as  a  center  of  social  and  educational  life  for 
their  employees,  and  this  building  may  have  a  properly  equipped 
auditorium  for  lectures  and  entertainments.  Instruction  classes 
may  be  established  to  any  extent  that  interest  and  attendance  will 
warrant,  all  such  work  being  under  the  direction  of  the  welfare 
manager  or  social  secretary,  though  the  details  of  management 
must  be  left  to  the  employees.  In  large  manufactories  classes 
for  len  may  be  maintained  in  drawing,  salesmanship,  language  i, 
etc.,  and  for  women  in  cooking,  nursing,  stenograph v,  sewing, 
embroidery,  and  dancing.  Lectures  may  be  either  instructive  or 
entertaining,  or  both. 

Recreation. — A  club  for  recreation  and  entertainment  may  be 
organized,  but  it  should  be  free  from  the  works  management,  for 


"'^L»r.--vi»  ^i^^V^-^'i^. 


WELFARE  FEATURES 


363 


paternullam  in  industrial  works  is  usually  disastrous,  as  illus- 
trated by  the  town  of  Pullman.  Men  and  women  working  all  day 
under  the  direction  of  others  will  insist  on  freedom  of  action  after 
working  hours,  and  while  the  club  building  may  adjoin  the 
works  it  should  be  outside  of  the  company's  piu_  erty.  The 
building  may  be  iMjuipped  with  games,  pool  tables,  bowling  alley, 
piano,  and  gymniwium.  One  company  in  Brooklyn  owns  and 
operates  a  building  in  the  mountains  for  a  summer  camp,  and 
another  gives  a  ten  days'  aummer  outing  in  tents  by  the  water  to 
one  thousand  employees  at  a  total  cost  of  less  than  $G  each. 
Vegetable  gardens  in  which  boys  and  men  can  work  and  grow 
products  for  their  own  use  have  proved  quite  popular  and  are 
not  only  a  source  of  profit  to  the  workers,  but  a  healthful  exercise 
and  recreation. 

The  suggestions  given  above  can  be  modified  or  extended  as 
desired,  to  suit  the  size  of  plant  and  the  wishes  of  its  occupants, 
and  though  only  a  few  of  these  suggestions  may  be  put  into  opera- 
tion at  any  particular  industry,  some  provision  for  the  benefit  and 
welfare  of  the  workers  should  be  part  of  all  such  organizations. 


r 


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CHAPTKR  XXXII 
STANDARD  BUILDINGS 

The  following  tuMos  ■^ivo  fi  ndiinl  sizoH  with  cstimiitpd  w(«i;,'lif  h 
for  typical  Mtccl-fiariiod  wL.  .?0  to 80  ft.  in  width,  witii  ciciuiinro 
undorthotniMHPHof  12  to?  i.  As  tho  fignrcH  Kiv'«n  ji  '  .'•;•;)«- 
riitc  units,  ronipli'to  eHtimatctt  cu  readily  be  made  <  ;  im^  '  jigs 
of  any  length  (Fig.  17')). 

The  buildings  arc  proportioned  for  a  live  load  of  onl>  .,  j  pounds 


Fig.  175. — Metal  covcre(,        .1  framed  bui.'ling. 

per  s(|uarc  foot,  and  ar»>  o.>spe<-illy  designed  for  export  to  warm 
climates,  but  are  also  suitii-.le  lor  other  places  where  they  are  for 
8ht«lter  and  er  ...urf^  only  ..  A  not  for  supporting  cranes,  ma- 
chinery, or  hea  ^jud.s.  \eiitilators  may  he  included  or  omitted 
as  desired.  The  tables  refer  to  the  framing  only,  and  do  not  in- 
clude windows,  doors,  corrugated  iron,  louvers,  or  other  sheet 
metal,  nor  do  they  include  the  foundations.  Because  of  the  light 
loads  for  which  the  framing  is  proportioned,  they  are  suitable  only 
for  light  covering  such  as  corrugated  iron,  and  not  for  heavy  plank 
sheathing. 

As  ocean  freight  rates  depend  both  on  the  weight  and  spaco 
occupied  in  the  ve.s.sel,  space  is  left  in  the  tables  for  both  kinds  of 
data,  though  in  many  places  the  columns  are  left  blank,  to  be 
filled  out  by  the  user  to  r  .it  local  conditions  and  current  prices. 

365 


Tvjwv5^..;gfrr»'£.^^ 


366     ENGINEERING  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


I!  i' 


TABLE 
Material  fob  Bdildino  30*0"  widb 


HeiKhtH 


U.iof 


Side 


truaaet)  i         columns 


End 
columns 


Knee 
braces 


Roof  8ide 

purlins  purlins 


Purlin 
finish 
angles 


See  l<2JX2XAi         (each)  :  2  <8  i     <s  <s  < 

li     12'0"        taMes       1-6"  J-8  lb.  |l-5"I-9.75  lb.    2J  X2X  A       3iX2JXi      21X2X,'.     2iX2X,', 


2 

14'0" 

1   <3X2XJ 
l-fl"]-8lb. 

I-6"I-12J 

.. 

.. 

3 

18'0" 

•         ;  4  <s 

.  2iX2Xl 

2  <s 

21X2            i            " 

4 

I8'0" 

. 

1-7"  1-15 

.. 

.. 

5 

20'0"    1 

' 

1-8"  1-18 

.. 

.. 

Material  fob  Building  35'  0"  Wid« 


I   1  <2iX2X,».  2  <s  <s  <»  < 

B        12-0"    i        ••         '   l-6"]-8lb.  1-.V'I  21X2XA       31X1';      I      21X2X,1,     2iX2X,'. 


7        14'0" 

1  <  3X2XJ 
1-6"  ]-8  lb. 

1-6"! 

! 

i 

8        16'0" 

■ 

4    <8 

21X2X1 

■■ 

2  <s               2  <8 
2iX2Xi        2iX2XJ 

1 

9        18'0" 

1 

•• 

4    <8 

3X2XJ 

1-7"  I 

.. 

i 

10        20'0" 

" 

" 

1-8"  I 

" 

1             •« 

Material  fob  Bdildino  40'  0"  Wide 


u 

12'0" 

1   <  2iX2x,-', 
1  0"  ]-8 

1-5"  I 

2  <» 

21X2X,'. 

4"  1-5 

5 

< 
,  2JX2XI 

< 

3X2X1 

i 
12 

14'0" 

1   <  3X2X1 
1-6"  ]-8  lb. 

1-6"  I 

" 

13 

16'0"    1 

4     <!- 

2}X2XJ 

2  <s 

,     21X2X1 

" 

14 

18'0" 

4  <.,: 

3X2X1 

1-7"  I 

•• 

• 

•• 

15 

j 
1 

20'0" 

"                1                              *' 

1-8"  I 

" 

1 

i 

i 

•• 

STANDARD  BUILDINGS 


367 


XXX 

X   :«)'0"  LoNO,  10  FT.  Pancls 


Purlin 
tiea 

PurUn 
cUpa 

E.ve.trut!?~«'°« 

.tend.       '«':•«' 
rafters 

Lonc'l 
bracing 

Long'l        »~""« 

.truu          r.*" 
beam. 

End 
purlin. 

End 
raftera 

1  Une 
rods:  |"0 

< 
3X2X1 

r'Orodii    |"0rod8 

Pipe 
21"  wi 

< 
3iX2tXl 

1-6"  1-8  lb. 

1 

■■        1        ■'■ 

" 

.. 

i 

„ 

..        1 

i 

■• 

' 



" 

•• 

•• 

•• 

„ 

.. 

XW  0"  LoNO.  10  rr.  Panels 


■  I  Pipe 

|"0  rods     J"0  tods     2i"  wi 


.     21X2X,».     1-6"] 


X48'  0"  LoNo,  12  rr.  Panel* 


I  Pipe         I    <.  <  I 

r'Orodgj   r'Orodsl  2}"  wi.   |  2^X2X^1  2JX2XI      l-6"l-8lb 


.1 


;?(is    i':\(;i\EEiiixa  or  shops  axd  FAcwf^iES 


TABLE 
Matkkiai.  fdh  Bi;iLDiNO  4.V  0" 


Kiic..  '"'•"''" 

lliiclit.s  ""  Siilo  riiliiijiiis        Ijiil  cnliinins  '  Ituof  piirlitia   Side  purlins         (inish 

angli's 


Iti  I -'I  I" 

17  iro" 

IS  IG'O" 

l',l  IS'd" 


St'o  1    <  2iX2'<  r«  (nrh) 

tallies      1  T"  1  '.I.7.-I  1  rr  1 


2  <  '    <»  < 

2i-2XA        1"  ]  ."i..">         21X2XJ  3X2XJ 


i    <   :i  ■  2  ■:  1 

1  G"  1 

•• 

1  <« 

,  :t\2xl 

■• 

2  < 

25X2X1 



1-7'  I 
IS"  1 



H! 


21  12'()" 


1  <  :i  -  2  X  J 

1-7"  ]  !t.7.->  1   .V  I 


Matkimai,  Fon  Hrii.nisii  ."lO'  0" 
.'i     2  X  ,',       "i"  l-O.')  .•ix2xl  :!x2X} 


1  <  :^^2xi 

22 

ll'if 

" 

1   7"1  !l.7.-. 

1  I'.'  I 

" 

1  < 

2  <s 

2:i 

lO'd" 

" 

:ivL.  <j 

■' 

21X2Xi 

" 

1  < 

21 

IS'O" 

" 

:ii  •  J.  .  J 

1   7-1 

" 

2r» 

2n'(r' 

■• 

1   s'  1 

MArf:itiAi.  Koit  I^riLi>iN<;  "la'  0" 


2<i  12'0" 


I   <-  2   <»  < 

2-.2^i  1    .V  I  2iv2.,'„        .-."]()..-.  .;.2.,l  :iX2Xl 


07 

1  I'll" 
itni" 

;  4  <8 

•           21x2Xi 

1  <* 

:t  ■  2  •  1 

1  f>"I 

2   <s 
2i  -2.1 

„ 

2S 

.. 

2!t 

IS'O" 

1  <s 

:  :i5X2Jxl 

1-7"  I 

" 

....                ,           ., 

:to 

20'0" 

• 

18"  I 

" 

STANDARD  BUILDINGS 


369 


XXX.  — Continued 
\ViDEX48'  0"  Losa.  12  ft.  Pa.vkui 


Purlin 
ties 

Purlin 
clips 

< 

•■<  X  2  X  J 

! 

Eavc  strut 
at  cuds 

Bracing 
between 
rafters 

Long'l 
bracing 

Long'l 

struts 

Bracing 
on  tie 
beams 

End 
purlins 

i 

End 

rafters 

1 

ro 

J"0  nuh 

2"0  rods 

Pipe              <8 

3J"dia.      2JX2xr 

1 

'■    <s 
:iiX2lx 

1 

1-6"  )-8  lb. 

,, 

— — 

.. 

•• 

..          1          .. 

i 

1         *• 

1 

1 

I 

•• 

••     :' 

i 

1 

! 

" 

•• 

j 

*' 

■• 

i      •■ 

! 

' 

! 

1 

•' 

' 

\VidkX56'0 

"  Long,  1 

< 

;ix2xi 

1  FT.  PaXELS 

2  <  laced' 
.•tlX2JXJ 

l"0         1 

}"0  rods 

i"0  rods 

Pilie      !    <s 
■l"dia.        .■iX2iXJ 

<8 

:ijx24xi 

f  1-7" 

1  1-9.7.'-,  lb. 

•■     ! 

••       i 

•• 

•• 

..    1    ..    1    ..    ! 

,, 

-          j 

1 

•■ 

1 

.. 

•• 

•• 

1 
i 

i 
1 

i 
1 

*' 

- 

•• 

.. 

■■ 

■ 

" 

•• 

•• 

WiDEX.W  0"  r.oN-n,  11  FT.  Panei^ 


J"0 


<  I  -  <  I  I  Pipe       I    <,  '    <, 

^^-^t   1  3tX2iXl     J"6rods!   rOrodsj  4"  dia.      I  3X21X1      3X2XJ        1-6"  ]-8  lb. 


24 


370     ENGINEERING  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


TABLE 
Material  for  Buildino  W  0" 


111                           i 

i  "««"'•     ,^'     Side  clumns       End  column.         «^            ^^^^ 

Side 
purlins 

Purlin 
finish 
ancles 

See         4  <s                             (each)            2  <s            '                            < 
31        12'0"        tables       2JX2XJ                       1-5"  I            2JX2X,'.       1-6"  ^8  lb,  3iX2JXi 

< 
3X2XJ 

32  1     14'0"            ••         j                "                1   l-«"  I 

..           1           ..           1 

•■ 

33  i     16'0" 

'  4  <»                                                2  <a                                  1 
3X2X1                              "                2iX2Xl 

1 
34  '     18'0" 

!  4  < 

34X2JXI 

1-7"  I 

.. 

" 

■• 

35        20'0" 


1-8"  I 


Material  roR  Bcildino  05'  0" 


38 

12'0" 

4  <a 

3X2X1 

1-5' 

I 

2  <» 

2iX2Xl 

] 

1-6' 

K8  1b. 

< 

3JX2JXi 

< 
3X2X1 

37 

14'0" 

..         1 

1-6' 

I 

•• 

•• 

1          .. 

38 

16'0" 

1  3iX2iXl 

■■ 

2  <a 

3X2X1 

■• 

_ 

•• 

39 

IS'O" 

.. 

1-7' 

I 

•• 

i 

•• 

" 

!    " 

40 

20'0" 

1 

1-8' 

I 

"                                              '*                                                                           1                  " 

Material  roR 

Buildino  TC  0" 

41 

12'0" 

4    <8 

3X2\J 

;-5' 

I 

2   <» 

3x2Xi 

l-« 

1-8  lb. 

<8 

3JX2JXA 

< 

3X2X1 

42 

14'0" 

, 

l-fl' 

I 

45         i 

•• 

43 

16'0" 

4    <8 

34x2ixj 

2  <s 

3iX2iXl 

•• 

•■ 

4> 

18'0" 

. 

1-7' 

I 

..            1            ..            ,             .,             1         ., 

45  ;     20*0" 


1-8"  I 


Purlin 
finish 
angles 


STANDARD  BUILDINGS 


371 


XXX. — Continued 
\ViDEX6i'  0"  LoNQ.  16  rr.  Panels 


Purlin 
tiex    , 

Purlin 
clips 

< 

3  x  1!  X  J 

ICavesirut 
at  ends 

Ilmring 
j  l)etwi't'n 
I     rafters 

1"0  rods 

Ivong'l 
bruclTia; 

Long'I 
struu 

Bracing 
on  tie 
beams 

End 
purlins 

Knd 
raften 

|"0 

1 

2  <s 

.■;xaxj 

J"0  rods 

Mpe 
4i"  dia. 

3JX21Xi 

<s 

3JX2JX} 

1-0"  ]-8  lb. 

'!„, 

" 

" 

..  .               1 

.. 

»• 

•• 

•• 

" 

■• 

" 

i 
"          1 

" 

" 

•• 

—       

1 

i 
•'         1 

1 

..     ! 

.. 

•  .         1 

" 

" 

■• 

WiDEXfll'O"  LoNO,  16  PT.  Panels 


<  2< 

3X2Xi      3X2XJ 


Wide  X  72'  0"  I^ono,  18  rr.  Pani 


<  2  <  ' 

l"Or.Hl,         3X2X1   I  ax2XJ      V'O  rod«        J"0  rods 


Pipe         I    <8  I    < 

5"  dia.      :  3iX2lXj    3XiXJ       1-8"  ]-8  lb. 


371.'     E.\(!I.\Kl-:i{I.\(l  OF  SHOPS  AM)  FACTORIES 


TABLE 

.Matehiai.  for  UriLtiiNd  7.V  0" 


Hoof  I 

HoiKhts     tniNWs        Side  columtis        lOiui  niliiinns 


Knoo        I         Uoof 


Side 


Purlin 

l)races  piirliiin  ptirlin.s       j  f 

I 


46 

12'()" 
110 

lO'O" 

is'o"  ; 

:!<2kJ 

( 

■iwh) 

5"  I 

2  <» 

.1X2X1 

<»                      < 

1-6"]  S  11..    ;itX2iX,1,       3X2Xi 

17 

1  «■ 

I 

2  <» 

:tiX24xj 



48 

1  <H 

;tjx2jxj 

,. 

..                        ..             , 

lil 

■• 

17' 

1-8' 

I 

; 

■|0 

20'0" 

■' 

I 

•• 

.. 

1    .-)■ 



Matkkial  ri)H   FJiiLDiMi  80' 0" 

51 

12'0" 

1  ro" 

" 

4    <H 

'  :ix2Xi 

2  <s 

:!X2XJ 

<                                 <9 

1-0"  ]  8  lb.    :i J  X 2.1  X ,".      :i  X  2  X I 

.'-.2 

1-0' 

•• 

.. 

r.3 

16'0" 

4  <s 

:tiX2JXJ 

2  <» 

■■'■■  -^ixi 

1 

51 

IS'O" 

" 

•• 

1-7' 

.. 

55 

20'0" 

" 

1-S' 

" 

.... 

STANDARD  IWILDINdS 


373 


XXX. — Continued 
WiUfcX72'  0"  Long,  18  rt.  P/nkls 


I'urliti  I'lirliri     '  Kav 


Hrariiig 

iK'tWtH'II 


I.<iiig'l         Liing'l 


H  racing 


I     • 


i:>iU 


^"'"  "^ '    I    rar,r      '■"»•"'«        »-<«     ,     Z:i  P-li...  ranrr. 


l^nnN      jt^X^Xl      3X2xi         r'Or.Hl«     T'O  r.Hl.s  j  a"  .lift.     |  aj  X21  X  J     :ij  X2J  X  1   1-fl"  }  8  lb. 


Wide  X 72' 0"  Lo.va.  18  rr.  Paneus 


■    <  I  2  <a  Pipe  <,s  <s  {  I--" 

i"Oru.la      .  3x2Xi   i  3X2Xt         J"0  rod-  '   J-'O  rml..     .V  clia.        3J  X  2  J  X  J    3j  X  2  J  X  i     \  )  0.7,5  lb. 


374     ESaiNEERJNG  OF  SHOPS  AM)  FACTORIES 

ill 


i " 

&  a 

Si 

s  t 

^\ 

1 « 


I 


'C 

Is 
It 


03 


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2       S 


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0. 


£       3 


£ 


a  «    .g  •- 

■e  ^  •§  a*" 


£ 


2      ^ 


c  ^ 


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a  3 


S 

s 


STANDARD  BUILDINGS 


376 


.5  o  o  o  o  ■  ►S 
oB  Ut  (ct  ^  P^  «  < 


:i7«     ESdISEERISG  OF  SHOPS  AXD  FACTOUIKS 


I 


c 

I 


I 


J 

% 


2  3 

►.  "  .5 

X  «  « 

w  5  s 

S3   «  3 

f-;  J  J 


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£ 


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i3      S 


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S      S      ? 


a?     3 
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ri 

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S  o    I   = 


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?■     '    O         OS         o         m 

*<  I  CI      -I      i;  [  ?i 


s     s 
3     m 


Hi 

■Sag 


SI 


8     S  h! 


I 


STAXDARD  nUILDISGS 


377 


I 


4 
I 


t 

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t 


I 
a; 


h.       r-       I-       at 


2        9    \    9i 


V 


-9  a  » 

111 
?  *  = 

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X  -<  S 

K  S  J 

►J  a.  S 

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22     "** 

*0     I    CI 


00  "f 

2 


378     KSUINEERISO  OF  SHOPS  ASD  FACTORIES 


m^^m-..- . 


STASDARD  IWU.DISGS 


379 


n 


J 


8 

il 

5  .■ 


I  "I 

l|iiiiitl 

3300000^ 

1 ,5  JS  jS  j  .S  -c 
.  ..  r.  r.    -   -,^  ^ 

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.  »  V  «  »  X  £  « 


_j  ji  J  « 

g  b  s  s  s  £<2  J 


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I  Ex  (>*  Em  Es.  £ 


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1 

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f  1    M  ^  M 

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£ 

■c   1 

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380     EXGINEERIXG  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


TABLE  XXXVI 


Ends     of    Buildings. 

Diaqrams  shcwinq  General  Cons-truc+ion, 
Pitc/J,  e"fo  IB'. 
The  Sketches  shown  are  for  a  Heiqhf  of  ZO' to  lave 
Line.    For  Heights  of  lb '  and  under,  use  one  less 
Line  of  Purlins   than  shown  on  Sketches. 


ff\ 

Aw'AnV^ 

k 

^i^) 

-\       / 

"k 

'■  v 

^\ 

/  K 

r^  \ 

^ 

/     \ 

/       \ 

Tor  Spans  up  to  30'0" 


Tor    Spans   to  70 '0. 


Tor  5pan&  up  to  50'0 


For   Spans  up  to  SO'O" 


STANDARD  BUILDINGS 


381 


J 

o 

M 


O 
Q 

3 

n 

o 
■« 

a 


S 


te 

'S 
(S 

S 
c 

a. 


'S 


E  -  -' 


^1 


£  2  0 

if  -  " 
S  o  i 

3  ^    O  I 

C  —  —  i 

.5  -O  TS 

3  ■«!  •< 

e 

is 


s 


'I 

r 


w 

, 

1- 

o 

^ 

s 

•  !^ 

Cl 

tc 

36 

c» 

1 

s    g 


•c 


■s 


II 


a 
o 

■n 


382     ESaiSKERISa  OF  SHOPS  AND  FACTORIES 


7J 

ss    ! 

z 

z 

2 

><    • 

£ 

^      f- 

_; 

cS* 

S 

f  i^'' 

fe 

§-? 

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s^^ 

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L.    J 

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a.      T. 


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ft<   !  ■/: 


S  TA  NBA  RD  B  UILDINGS 


383 


«   3  »  * 
llll 

S    -  M  M 

1  ft.o.S 

"  .9    M  M 
J3    S    C.S 


I 


.H  .S  .2  g 

_  M  M   M  e 

g  .a  ,c  a  .2 
u  C  K 
S   &   s 

li 


11 


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«      01     «     V 

e   e   s   S 


0    0    0^ 


S  2  JJ 


§  £  £  £ 

C    0)    V    Q^ 
.O  J3  J3  jO 


: "?  '5  .£  S; 

)    3    3    *  S 

B     K     «     10  n 

i    £    £x  t 
;  .e  .fi  'S 


•8   ! 


si 

1     ^ 

1 

o      >o      e 

i     ?     1     i     3 

"l   §   S 

« 

P4 

1 

1 

1 

S 

£ 

-;  -i — : — : — : 

— :  ~    : 

1  i  s  1    i 

— ;  — .-  -: 

'■ 

: 

•   •   

-:  -;  — ; — :  -: 

•  --■--• 

-a 

is 

o       o       « 

S?          1^          M 

ffj      «      -w 

?     S     S     K 

I-        •*        -r        •»■ 

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£.1    :      :      : 

li 

S 

£ 

ll 

-: — f — : 

N       n       ■* 

S     ??     2?     £       : 

:       ;  1    : 

:      :      :      :  '    : 

^^     1 

1 

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^  M  M 

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S    S    3    s    s 

1  i 

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384    i':\<:[\i:i':iifS'G  of  si/ops  asd  factories 


c 

0. 


i      S    S 


■<: 

1  J:  -^ 

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u< 

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—  a  = 

y. 

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ffl    i   •?    i   1- 


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I    :  \ 


I       I       I       I 


STANDARD  BUILDISGS 


385 


T\ni.i:  \i, 

Dcliiils  anil  Wcitjlil-i  of  ('(;nn('c(i()iis  for  l5iai'iii(j 

bftvvwm  Trusses  at  Tie  IJcains,  and  Posts  to  Tii- 

H<'anis. 

Noti\ — Tlic  ^V('i^llls  jiivcn  ini'lud"  only  tlic  Wi'ij;lits 

of  Material  for  whicli  .sizes  arc  uiven  in  the  Details, 

and  the  Measurements,  etc.,  for  the  same. 


5f «  Cf:pral  of  Tie  Beam 


\L.3,UH 


\/pi.af.^'iiiJi' 


Connecfion  for  Bracing 
between  Tie  Beams  fv 
Inter  Posts  of  Ind  Framt 
Weight-  of  One  .  3C  /*s 


*J 


iSAleighf  oi^' 
iJ  ^5//•.■5. 

»?  /  IT  ^/^ 


Yteighf  of  One  ■=  25  !b$. 


^■Purlin 


Connecfion  fa  Posts  of 
*!?,  Latticeal,  af  Corner 
of  £nd  Frame. 
Weight  of  One  •  SI  lbs. 


Z,?;5J|x:^'J 


PI.3. 


^r^^ 


Connection   for  Bracirg 
between  Tie  Beams  to  Corner 
Po^ts  of' End  Frames  if  Posts 
are   I  Beams . 
Weight  of  One  =  /3  lbs. 


9.9. 


6% 


Connected  to  Inter.  Posts 

of  End  Frame  where  a  Lifti-.c.i  ^\  . 

Strut  extends  across  the  End/y' 


ZDc;:: 


PQliqV--' 


ii_ 


d'pf' ^ 


at  Eaves. 

r  '!ight  of  One  • 


n  lbs 


c 


** 


Urff:tr.i 


|0:«>iOi 


i««l 


fff 


25 


38G    A     im:i:i{L\'g  of  shops  axd  factories 


-a 

•I 

B 


'/3 


C 


c 


<;  — 


"*        -^        ■■ 


<s 

« 

X 

1 

1 

-f 

ct 

CI 

X 

CI 

V 

-> 

V 

V 


V  1 


^ 

X 

X 

X 

•I 

X 

CI 

X 

CI 

X 

CI 

T^ 

m 

V 

-- 

V 

V 

I,^ 

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^ 

X 

X 

X 

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; 

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CI 

Ti 

X 

X 

X 

rt 

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n 

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V 

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V 

^ 

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^ 

X 

CI 

« 

X 

X 

* 

n 

.«• 

BD 

ao 

V 

V 

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T 

; 

X 

5 

■«« 

CI 

X 

X 

CI 

X 

1„ 

n 

n 

n 

V 

V 

^ 

'p 

:i    V 


STANDARD  BUILDINGS 


387 


I 

» 


1 
■s 


o 

0. 


o 


te 

1 

?, 

=;. 

CI 

::     .2 


■J 


a 


X 

V 


V 


V 


V 


^« 

V 

?! 

X 

^5 

V 

-r 

1 

X 

?i 

X 

V 

-r 

1 

e 

1 

X 

X 

n 
V 

T 

1 

X 

X 

« 

V 

> 
> 

\ 

• 

M 

1 

> 

> 

c 

1 
(. 

>' 

> 

38S     KSGlM'JhlilXd  OF  SHOPS  AM)  FACTORIES 


T.    -5 


»  — 

IIS 

Z      .=  2 

sr       —    - 

3  =     t 

r         "  <^ 


■6  i 


=  '3 


-■m^ian-  ■>>' 


z    s 


3       -      2     i 


K 


V  ^ 


^i 


<   c 


3        S 


■«« 

X 

X 

A 

rr 

.   ^ 

X     . 

■  X  i 

X 

; ;  X 

^i 

'•  =•* ; 

n 

•     CI 

i    1 

»- 

r 

' 

bt 

1 

I « I    1-1 


•*•"!•    ye 


c 


X    - 

■«* 

X 


tc 
< 


c 

<  ■ 


o 


niBLKHiRAPHY 


389 


BIBLlOGltU'IIY 


TrMtisM. 

(:<wt  Kpppinfj  and  MuiiuKcnciit 

Design  and  Construction  of  Metallurgical 

Plants 

Efficiency 

Factory  Costs 

Factory  Organization 

Industrial  Engincoring 

Industrial  Plants •. 

Mill  Building  Construction  (19(H)) 

Mill  Buildings  (1910) 

Mill  Construction 

Millwrighting 

Millwrighting 

Mo('  rn  Machine  Sliops 

Sho^  Matmgement 

SiH-cifications  for  Buildings 

Works  Management 

Works,  Wages  and  Profit 


II.  A.  EV\N8. 

Dmcau  Xaoel. 
Hakiiinoton  Emekson. 
V.  E.  Wedneu. 
Hl'oo  Diemeh. 
CnA».  B.  Goi.no. 
Chas.  Day. 
II.  G.  Tykheli,. 
II.  G.  Tyhuell. 
C.  T.  Mai.n. 

IIODAUT. 

Swingle. 

t).   E.   pERniGO. 

r.  W.  Taylou. 
C.  C.  Schneider. 
Knoeppel. 
II.  L.  Gantt. 


Journalistic  Articles. 

.Mtruism  and  Sympathy  in  Administration.   J.  II.  PATTEnsov. 
Eiiyiiirering  Magazine,  Jan.,  1<M)1. 

Armories— Steel  Framing  for II.  G.  Tyukell. 

ArrhiUrt's  and  Builder's  Magazine,  Oct.,  1901. 

Bibliography  of  Works  Munagonunt IIuoo  Diemer. 

Engnieering  Magazine,  July,  1904. 
Boiler  Shops  at  Grafenstaden,  Alsace. 

Zeits.  d.  V.  Deutscher  Ing.,  Oct.  7,  1899. 
Bumside    Shops    of    the    Illinois    Central 
Ry.  Co. 

Engineering  News,  June  18,  1896. 

Capital  and  Labor  Harmony Andrew  Car.neqie, 

CVi.s.v  Vr.«  Magazine,  July,  1903. 
Chicago     and     Northwestern     Shops     at 
Chicago. 

American  Engineer  and  Railroad  Journal,  March,  1899. 
Cincinnati     Milling     Machine     Company's 

'^•'ops E.  M.  Chace. 

Machinery,  N.  Y.,  Sept.,  1900. 

Coal  Hoisting  Towers H.  G.  Tyrrell. 

Engineering  News,  May,  1901. 

Coal  Mine  Tipples «  «< 

Erujineering  and  Mining  Journal,  Feb.  2,  1905. 
Concord  Shops  of  the  B.  &  M.  R.  R. 

American  Engineer  and  Railroad  Journal,  March,  1898. 


.'{•JO     E\(iI\KKIiI\G  OF  SHOPS  A\D  FACTORIES 


('(>nif<)n;il)lp  Shops. 

/)■../(  A'je,  Nov.  H,  KWMt. 
('oni|>iirutive    ('out    of    WikkI-  and    Stccl- 
friinic  Fiictory  HuildiiiKH H.  (i.  Tykkell. 

Unilroad  Giizelte,  Oct.  1!M)4. 

Carprritrij  and  Building,  Nov.,  liJO.'j. 
Compiirative    Cost    of    \Vo<mI,    Ucitif«)rf<><l 

Concri'te  and  StJ-pl  BuildinRw "  " 

Knijineering  Magazine,  Junp,  11)12. 
Cooling  Sliops  by  Evaporation .V.  1'api.v. 

Oinie  Cinl,  May  1,  1909. 
CoNt  of  Concrete  Buildings. 

National  .\s80ciation  of  Ccmrnt  UisorB,  Report  of  1909. 
Cost  of  Kemodeliiig  an  Old  Factory W.  S.  R()(J»;km. 

Machinery,  S.Y.,  April,  1898 
Design  of  Induutrial  Buildings II.  F.  Stimpson. 

Knginrering  Record,  May,  1909. 

DcKigii  of  Industrial  Works G.  II.  Gibhon. 

A.   Home  Nohto.v. 

TItc  Mechanical  Engineer,  July  30,  1909. 
Design  and  Construction  of  Modern  Engi- 
neering Shops J.    H.    IIUMPHItEYS. 

Tlu-  Mechanical  Engineer,  Dec.  13-20,  1902 
Design    and    Construction    of    Industrial 

Buildings 1).  C.  N.  Collins. 

Emiinvering  Magazine,  Sept.,  1907. 
Domes,  Steel  Framing  for II.  G.  Tyukell. 

Archilect's  and  BuiUUr'           gazine,  March,  I'M)'}. 
Drafting  Oflice  Rules "  " 

Engineering  \ews,  .March  23,  1905. 
Drainage  of  Works  and  Buihliiigs "  " 

Canadian  Engiimr.  Nov.-Dec,  1901. 
Drawings,  Cost  of,  fur  Structural  Work.. .  .         "  " 

Iron  Age,  July,  11  1901. 
Economic  Theory  of  Factory  Location Hugo  Dikmeh. 

Railway  Age,  Mareli  18,  1904. 
Elements  of  Modern  Shop  Arrangement. 

Railroad  Gazette,  June  '5,  1900. 
Engineering  of  Industrial  Buildings D.  C.  N.  Collins. 

Iron  Aye.  Dec.  1,  1904. 
Engine  Foundations. 

Engineering-Contracting,  March  31,  1909. 
E.stimating  Structural  Work 11.  G.  Tyiuiell. 

Arcltilect's  and  Huilder's  Magazine,  Jan.,  1903. 
Export  Trade  in  Structural  Steel "  " 

Iron  Age,  June  13,  1901. 
Factory  Foot  Bridges "  " 

Carpentry  and  Building,  1905. 


BIHUOGRAPHY 


391 


Factory  Conotruction  ami  ArranRemrnt .  .  .    L.  I'.  Alkokd. 

Aincriuui  Society  of  Mc-cliaiiitial  KngiriM'M,  Oct.,  lUll. 
I'irc  Protection  of  Itailroatl  Shops II.  S.  Knowlton. 

Hailwiiy  Aye,  Juiu'  U,  1905. 
Fire  Urill H.  F.  J.  Pohtek. 

Cnsxiir*  Magcutine,  August,  1906. 
Fire  Di-partmcnt  for  Shops, 

Amirican  Machinist,  Sept.  23,  1897. 
Moors  for  Machine  Shops 

Iron  Trade  Review,  Oct.  26,  l!K).j. 
Floors,  Shop H.  M.  Lane. 

Entfineering  jyiyeat,  April,  1011. 
Floors,  Cement Alkheu  Guadknwiti. 

Cemenl  Age,  Dec,  1908,  and  Oct.,  1«()9. 
Floors,  Bawment J.  K.  Swket. 

Trangarliims  American  Society  of  Mechanical  I'Jngineers, 
May,  1897. 
Floors,  Shop L.  C.  Wa8<>n. 

American  Machinist,  Oct.  20,  1911. 
Foundry  Design .■ (i.  K.  Hooi-eb. 

Iron  Aye  Jan.  5-12,  1911. 
Foundry  Design J.  IIouneh. 

Engineering,  Jan.  21,  1910. 
Gary,  Indiana,  Steel  Plant. 

Eny      ering  Record,  Oct.  9,  1909. 
Gateshead,    England,    Tlie    Northwestern 
Iliiiiwuy  Works. 

Engineering,  London,  Dec.  18,  1896 
(Jlajsgow,  Works  of  Sir  William  Anol  &  Co. 

Engineering,  London,  May  18,  1900. 
Higher  Law  in  the  Industrial  World 11.  F.  J.  Porter. 

Engineering  Magazine,  .Vugust,  l'.M)5. 
Ilunslet,  Leeds,  Worka  of  Graham,  .M   rton 
&  Co. 

Iron  and  Coal  Trade  Review,  March  18,  1904. 
Ideal  Blacksmith  Shop A.  W.  McCaslin. 

Railway  Master  Mechanic,  Xov.,  1904. 
Impressions  of  American  Workshops A.  J.  Gimson. 

Institute  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  Jan.  20,  1905. 
Industrial  Works Gibson. 

Mechanical  Engineer,  July  30,  1909. 
Iron  .Mill  Buildings J.  W.  Seaver. 

Transactions,  Engineer's  Society  of  Western  Pennsylvania,  1892. 
Lajnng  Out  of  Workshops Joseph  Hokner. 

Pages  Magazine,  March,  1903. 
Lighting  of  Shops II.  C.  Spillman. 

Electrical  World,  Feb.  23,  1011. 
Machine  Foundations. 

Mechanicnl  World,  Jan.  22,  1909. 


:W2    h:\(;iM:i:iii.\a  or  snoi's  .i.\7>  FAcrouirs 

Mucliino  Shop  MarmgcnK nf H.  |'.  i„  om  i  1 1. 

Ilnijinnrimj  Mmjiuine,  Jan.  to  Aug.,  18i?<>. 

Macliini'  Shop  Hoof* j.  j.;   Swkkt. 

t'dn.sur's  Miujtueinf,  Aug.,  1003. 

Market  Uuil.litigs n.  ().  Tvhhki.i,. 

.\riliiti it' n  mid  Huildirx  Mttijiizim ,  July,  l!M)l. 

Mill  unci  Shop  CotiNtrurtioii Hi  hk  K.  Fikld. 

Connecticut  Association  of  Civil  KriKineers,  1894. 

Mill  IJuildinRs     A  Di^cu.Nsiim \i.iiKiii   Smith. 

Jiiurnut  Wmlirn  Smiil;/  of  h.'ntjiiiiirx,  Fi-h.,  lltll. 

Mill  Huililiiig  CoiLffrufiioii (i.  H.  Ill  Triii\.s<)N. 

IJiKiiKcr's  Society  of  WcM.rii  reiui.'.ylvnniu,  Oet.,  1S1)2. 
Modern  .Miiehine  Works  of  LiMwe  &  Co.,  Herliii. 
Ziitch.  d.  V.  Dculchir  Ing.,  Sept.  :«),  18!»9. 

Modern  .Mucliiiie  Shop  at  I'raKue J'hof.  T.  DKMrTll. 

Zvih-h.  D.  V.  Diiiturh  r  Imj.,  Oct.  23,  18!)7. 

Motiern  .Machine  Shop  in  Prussia K.  .Vmikhtj*. 

Sidlil  uiid  EiKin,  Sept.  1,  1!M)1. 

Modern  .Machine  Shop  Location 1[.  L.  .Vu.voi.n. 

FJn</iiinri:,ij  Miujiuiiu,  .\pril,  l.S!«). 
Montreal    Shops   of   the   Cunadiu"    Pacific 

Uailvvay  Co \v.  ( ).  Q,k,-t. 

American  Knginur  and  Hiiilwnij  Jnurmil,  Dec.  1,  1<MI4. 
National  (;a.sh  Ke>;ist.T  Works,  Dayton,  Ohio.      .V  Keries. 

Aniiriiiin  Miuhinixl,  .March  2."!,  l,Sit7. 
Oniiya   Shops   of   tlie    .Nijipnii    Haihvay    of 

"'"I'-'*" "    .  .    W.  C.  Tvi.f:!!. 

liiiilwaii  and  /unjiniiriny  Jirrinr,  Oct.  I,  !,>>'.»!. 
Operation    of   HiinRarian    Itailuay    Work- 

"''"P** HroMi.K  S.\,:t:u. 

(llaser's  Annakn,  Feb.  1,  1<KH>. 

Pavements h.  (j,  Tyukell. 

Canadian  Kntjiimr,  I'eh.,  1002. 
Pcncoyd  Iron  Works— .V  .Serial. 

Amirican  Machinist,  Juno  2.j,  190.3. 
I'hotograpliy  for  tlie  Shop. 

American  Society  of  .Meelianical  Engineers,  \;>v.,  1909. 

Planning  of  Factory  HiiildinKM Hioo  Dikmku. 

Knijintiriiiij  MayiKinr,  .Varch  2\,  1!M»4. 

Planning  of  In.histrial  Muildings II.  F.  Sti.mpsox 

Eni/innriny  litrord,  .May  29,  1909. 
Progress  in  the  Design  of  Roofs  since  18,>0.   Ewixa  Matheson. 
Knginrmmj,  London,  Jan.  9,  190.3. 

Railroad  Shops Waltek  (J.  Hero. 

Railroad  (In:,  tic,  .Marcli  13,  1903. 
Railroad  Shops  and  their  Fiiuipnient. 

Irnu  and  Co'd  Tradi:  R:  riru-,  Aj-ri!,  10,  1890. 

I{jiihvay  Shops R.  H.  Soule. 

American  Lngintir  and  Railway  Jovr.,  Feb.,  1903. 


IA> 


I! 


liinUCM.ftAPIlY  .m3 

RoofinK  ExistitiR  Hhops R.  H.  Fowi.km. 

IriHtitiit    ,•(  Mirliiiiiicnl  Kiigiii<-<  't,  July,  I'HKJ. 
U<Mif:i  and  Hoof  Cuvi-ritiKH. 

t'.uifinri  ring  and  Mining  Journal,  Sept.  5,  J.'MKJ. 
IlolliriK  Mill  HuiKliiiK  at  Miiltllitowri,  Oliio. 

Engimiring  Hicord,  July  20,  11M)I. 
RiilliiiK  Mill  ut  MouiiTcy,  Mexico ().  (iiii.DHTElN. 

Stiihl  unU  Kiarn,  Juno  15,  1004. 
Ki)un(lhiiUH(>H. 

Anu'rican  Sooicty  of  Moclianical  Kngiiiccrs,  July,  lOl(>. 
Sclienectatly  Hhopn  of  tlio  (Jt-ncral  Klcolrif 

Co S.   I).   V.    HtHH. 

Iron  Age.  Jan.  4,  IIHK). 
Shipping  Directions  for  Structural  .Steel         II.  (J.  Tykkei-L. 

Iron  Age,  April  25,  1<.M)1. 
Shop  Cranes "  " 

Iron  Age,  Jan.  19,  19()5. 
Shop  Conntruction (Wau  K.  rr.itniao. 

Machinery,  C)ct.-\ov.,  UH)2. 
Shop  DcHi|;n .         "  " 

Iron  Trade  Review,  Dec.  29,  1910. 
Shoj)  KstheticH l{.   L.  Twkedy. 

Amvrieaii  Architect,  June  14,  1011. 
Sonic  Features  of  McMlern  Shops S.  T.  1'hkkland. 

American  Machinint,  Nov.  2('>,  IXOCi. 
Steam    lOngineering   Plant   at    New    York 

.Navy  Vard (  .  H.  Matthews. 

Jour.  An-  riea'i  S'>riili)  of  \aval  Knginei  rx,  .Nov.,  liKtl. 
Stit'l  liuililings  for  ICxport II.  CJ.  TYimELL. 

Engineering  Sews,  April  11,  1<M)1. 
Storage  Pockets "  <• 

linilroad  Gazette,  Oct.,  19()1. 
Sturtcvant  Shops,  Ilyde  Park,  .Mass W.  B.  Snow. 

Engineering  Xews,  Oct.  30,  1002. 
Suggestions  for  Shop  Construction F.  .\.  ScnEFFLEn. 

Transaction  .\nierican  Society  of  .Mechanical  Kngineers,  Dec.,  1903 
Sulmrhan  Settlement — "  Honicwood  " K.  U.  L.  (Jould. 

Anurican  Keiiew  of  Reviews,  July,  1«07. 
Truce  Ret  ween  Capital  and  I>abor Cakwoll  T.  Fugitt. 

Cassiers  Magazine,  Sept.,  1905. 
United  Shoe  Machinery  Shops  ut  Beverly, 
Mass. 

Engineering  Record,  April,  1905. 
Ventilation  of  Shops. 

Practical  Engineer,  Jane  24,  1910. 
Warehouses  and  Factories  in  Architecture.    Russell  Stdrois. 

Architectural  Record,  Jan.,  1904. 
Weight  of  Steel  Hoof  Trusses H.  G.  Tyhhell. 

Engineering  News,  June,  1900. 


i  I 

j; 

i  , 

j  T 


il' 


31)1     ESUISEKRING  OF  SHOPS  A\D  FACTORIES 

\Voig}it  of  Trusses  and  Girders  for  All  Spans 

and  Lv)a(ls II.  G.  Tykkei.l. 

KngiiDiring,  London,  July  25,  11I02. 
Workman's  Dwellings  at  the  Krupp  Steel 
Works. 

aiuckauf,  May  29,  1S97. 
Works  Design  as  a  Factor  in  Manufacturing 

Economy Henky  Hess. 

Engineering  Miigmine,  July,  1904. 

Workshops  of  Modern  Type A.  I'hint.i.e. 

Cauudiun  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  Dec,  1903. 


i 
i 
1 

! 

INDEX 

i 
1 

A 

Cement  concrete  floors,  163 

l)roduction  of  the  United  States, 

Acid        -'i'l  ;    )l    coil"  ii'ti-   surfiicos, 

103 

ViH 

Charges  of  consulting  engineers,  5,  0, 

Aillu'sion  of  concrete,  111 

7,  8 

Air  (listriljution,  system  of,  2153 

(Chimneys,  310 

economizers,  237 

City  location  for  plants,  12 

f<upply,  systcTU  of,  231 

Cleanliness  and  order  as  protection 

Wiisliinf;  system,  2,jl 

against  fire,  324 

American    Institute    of    t'onsulting 

Climate,  effect  on  selection  of  dis- 

Enfjineers, 7 

trict,  16 

Arch  roof,  stres.s  sheet,  9H 

Coal  storage  bins,  219 

Armories,  weight  of,  9'?,  97 

Code  of  ethics  for  engineers,  V 

Asplmlt  floors,  108 

Coffer  dams,  157 
Coloring  concrete,  131 

B 

Columns  50 

of  concrete,  116 

Heiim  h.ingers,  0,5 

schedule,  a  typical  one,  74-88 

Jieams  of  concrete,  117 

Comparative   co.st   of  concrete   and 

Hetiileliem  slmpes.  71 

steel,  151 

Bil)Uo>;nipliy   of   factory   ImihlinRs, 

of  wood,  concrete  and  steel,  147 

3,S<) 

of  wood  and  concrete,  149 

Hlue  printing,  20.") 

Concrete  beams,  117-118 

Hoarding,  tliickness  ami  span,  200 

design  of,  120 

Jirick  ardi  floors,  170 

buihlings,  cost  of,  140 

floors,  109 

construction,     advantages     of, 

lluckeye  floor,  174 

103 

Huilding  frames,  stress  in,  48 

disadvantages  of,  104 

lot,  selection  of,  10 

coal  and  ash  pockets,  224 

materials,  kinds  of.  .52 

floors,  beam  and  slab  type,  179 

l)lans,  by  whom  made,  1 

framing,  102 

tyi)es,  selection  of,  .'>2 

materials,  100 

Hunkers,  .suspen.sion,  221 

roofs,  201 

surface,  treatment  of,  127 

C 

surface  removal,  131 
upper  floors,  178 

Canadian  Xorthern  shops,  29 

Construction,  354 

Cantilever  cranes,  334 

C'ontracts,  355                                                                                ! 

Car  houses,  212 

between    engineer    and    owner,                                         j 

shops,  212 

10-1 1                                                                          1 

Ceiling,  value  of  light  ones,  270 

Consulting  engineers,  charges  of,  5                                             | 

(filings,  flat  or  riblied,  184 

Co-oj)eration  of  different  shops,  35                                          j 

395 

il 
1 

;{tt(i 


IXDKX 


("ost  charts  for  shops,  OS-70 

estiinutcs,  ',i2 

estimate  for  stnu'tiiral  plant,  ;17 

nuxiiiicalion  of,  io  suit  location, 
VIII 

of  heating,  I'liS 

of  land  anil  area  rc<[uired,  14 

of  light  ing.  2''.i 

of  steel  buildings,  99 
Cotton  mills,  214 
Crane  girders,  lateral  stiffness  of,  50 

specifieations,  .'528 
Cranes,  H27 

D 

Departments,  arrangement  of.  27 

for  fire  protection,  ;i2() 
Depreciation,  .")4 

Design  of  ooncrele  buildings,  KKS 
Direct  radiation,  2:il 
District,  selection  of,  12 
Doors,  107 

Domes,  framing  of,  MO 
D.irfting  ofhce,  2();5 
Draimige  of  liuilding-    JSl 

of  industrial  works.  2SI 

of  i)lants.  2,St( 
Drawings  for  buildings,   12 
Dust  formation  on  lloors,  Ki" 


E 


Karth  floors,  lo8 

Economics  of  factory  construction, 

18 
I'.liminator,  action  of,  253 

con.struction  of,  2,")2 
Ends  of   buildings,  arrangement   of 

framing,  .'{SO 
Engine  foundations,  157 

houses,  circular  and  rectangular, 

208 
Engineers  and  their  services,  1 
Engineering  .service,  cost  of,  4 
Engineers'     Club     of     St.     Loui.s, 

.schedule  of  charges,  (i 
Erection    '  concrete  buildings,  124 
tools  and  niachinerj",  39 


Esthetic  treatment,  44 
Estimating,  330 
Ivstiinates  and  tenders,  354 
E.s.sentials  of  good  framing,  53 
Exhaust  steam  heating.  237 
l-.xpansion,  provision  for,  27 
]v\tension  of  plant,  30 


Eactorj'  lighting.  257 

an  example,  275 
Fan  system  for  heating,  229 
Fire  drill,  325 

extinguishers,  323 
Fireproofing     '  structural  concrete, 

110 
Fireproof  material,  320 
Fire  protection,  319 
sj-stems,  321 
streams,  314 
Flat  slab  floors,  183 

slal)S,  .strenjjth  of,  185 
Floors,  area  and  elevation  of,  24 
asplialt,  108 
brick,  109 

arch,  170 
cement  concrete,  l(i3 
concrete  upper,  178 
earth,  1.58 
flat  slab  type,  183 
granolithic,  100 
metal  arch,  175 
plate,  170 
trough.  176 
plank,  159 

recommended  tyiies,  170 
slow  burning,  172 
tar  concrete,  102 
wood  block,  159 
loads,  47 
Ford  Motor  Works,  24 
Forge  shops,  200 
I'^ormuia"  for  concrete  floors,  182 
Foundations,  152 

walls.  154 
Foundries,  207 
Friction  of  wat«r  in  pipes,  315 


INDEX 


397 


G 

(inl)les,  out'  or  two,  .")0 
(ioiienil  (losigii  of  ImildiiiKs,  42 
(■rade  of  lot,  17-U5 
(ira''       "  io  floors,  Kift 
(irouiiti  noors,  158 
(irowth  of  plimts,  VII 

H 

Hair  cracks  on  concrete,  125 
Ileulth  coniUtions  in  factories,  :t51) 
Heating,  229 

l)y  Hoor  radiation,  2  44 
Heat  losses,  2:«) 
Hoisting  towers,  220 
Horse-power  to  raise  water,  ',iV\ 


Illumination,  importance  of,  2(10 

of  vertical  surfaces.  2r>,S 
Industrial  engineers,  VII 
qualifications  of,  4 
Inspection  for  fire  risk,  323 
Insurance,  54 


K 


Knee  braces,  49 


Location  of  factories,  .34 
Long  span  roofs,  92 

M 

Machines,  arrangement  of,  22 

schedule  of,  21 
Machine  shops,  20<) 
Machinery    connection    to    concrete 

floors,  121 
Manufacturing  di.strict,  selection  of, 
12 

city  or  suburb,  12 
Market  buildings,  00 

for  manufactured  products,   10 
Material  benefits  for  employees,  3<)1 

and  mixing  for  concrete,  100 
Metal  arch  floors,  175 

framing,  71 

trough  floors,  170 
Method  of  construction  for  buildings, 

37 
Methods  of  management,  20 

of  manufacture,  l.H 
Monitors,    longitudinal    and    trans- 
verse compared,  57 
Monitor  framing,  estimate  for,  375 
Monolithic  and  sei)arately  moulded 

members,  114 
Motors  for  yard  haulage,  333 
Multiplex  floors,  175 


L 


N 


Labor  supply  and  wages,  15 
Lamps,  height  of,  20.5-2()7 

number  of  per  unit  of  lloor  area, 
205 

selection  of,  2()5 
Lighting  as  related  to  effective  man- 
agement, 259 

drawings,  "271 

glare  in,  264 

overhead  method  of,  203 

rcfpiirements,  201 

units,  candle-power  of,  258 
Loads  on  foundations,  152 
Loading  apparatus,  334 

facilities,  39 


Nailed  joints,  value  of,  04 
National  Cash  Hegi.ster  Works,  13 

Portland  Cement  Co.  Plant,  29 
North  light  roofs,  58 


O 


O.scillation  of  biiildings,  53 


Painting  concrete,  129 
Paint  shops,  heating  of,  241 
Paper  mills,  heating  of,  241 
Partitions,  194 


39S 


IXDKX 


11  i' 


IMidtdprapliy,  tisp  of,  43-20.") 

Picking  cdticrcto  siirfacr^.  l.'{."> 

ri(r>,  l.-)t 

I'ilis   l.-)t( 

I'ipi's,  carryiiij;  capacity  of,  L'l" 

I'its  ill  eiiRiiic  luni.-cs,  L'll 

riaiik  floors.  l.V.) 

safe  load  on,  172 
Plant  location.  Mil 
I'lastcrinR  c<iM<r<'tc,  I'M) 
Plate  tlo<,rs,  17(i 
I'liiinliinK  lixtiiri-s,  2,S4 
Pneumatic  system  of  <lrainapc.  2it;{ 
I'ortlatul  cciiiciit.  history  of.  1(12 
J'osts  and  k!U'(>  lirai  "s,  cstiniatcs  for, 

;{7ti 
Power,  :!(• 

houses.  214 

nearness  to  source  of.  \'< 
Preliminary    design     for    strrtural 

l)lant.  :U 
Prejiaration  of  concrete  surface-,  I.'il 
Preparatory  desijrn  of  plant,  .'iO 
PrcMTvation  of  metal,  71 
Profit  on  investment.  41 
Pumps.  cai)acity  of.  812 


liafler  hracinjr.  estimates  for.  ;i.^;i 
It.aw  materials.  ;ieariiess  to,  l.'i 
liecreatiori,  provision  for.  :i(i2 
lieinforced    concrete    frames    ^\itll 

hrick  walls.  .52 
lieinforcinR  l>ars.  107 
Itetloctors  for  illumination,  2(10 
Kepairins  pranolithic  floors,  ICS 
Hoof  outlines.  5,", 

purlins,  estimates  for,  .'{78 
truss  cocflicients,  48 
trusses,  ostinuites  for,  374 
Hoofs  nnd  roofinfj,  109 
Hound  hou.ses,  207 

house  heatinfc.  2.39 
Jiuhliing  concrete  surfaces,  13.5 


S 


Sand  blasting,  133 


Scope  of  plants,  .3(i 

Scrulihing  concrete  surfaces.  135 

Separately  moulded  menilfors, 

14.-) 
Sewage,  conservation  of,  294 

disjiosal  of.  294 
Sewers,  flushing  of,  292 
ventilation  of,  290 
Shafting    attachments    to    concrete 

beams,  123 
Sheet  Jiiling,  157 
Shingles,  concrete,  201 
Shijipiug  facilities,  15-25 
Shower  baths.  285 
Side  ])osts,  size  of  material  for,  ,38(5 
Similar  i)lants  to  the  iirojMi.sed  one, 

particulars  of,  20 
Size  of  lot,  34 
Social     relations     for     factory     cm- 

I)loyees,  357 
Soil,  area  on,  1.53 
Soils,  bearing  power  of,  1,52 
Slow  burning  or  mill  construction,  ,52 
Specifi<'ations,  51 

Spiral  reinforcing  for  concrete  col- 
umns, 1 1() 
Spray  diambers  for  air  wa.sliing,  253 
Stanilard  building  table.',  3(i4 
Stand  pijics,  ,308 
Statistics  of  indu.strics,  VIII 
Steam  heating.  213 
Steel  frame  buildings,  cost  of,  98 

with  brick  walls.  52 
Steiihen.son'.s  experiments  for  wind 

pressure,  45 
Stirrups  for  concrete  l)eam.s,  120 
Storage  pockets.  219 

tanks,  297 
Storing  and  receiving  sjiace,  2.5 
Stres.s  analy.sis  in  building  frames,  48 
Suburi)an  districts,    advantages   of, 

13 
Superintendence.  3,50 
Surface  coating  of  concrete,  128 
defects  of  concrete,  12.5 
finish  of  concrete.  125 
removal  on  concrete,  131 
Surroundings  of  plant,  .300 
Switches  for  lighting,  271 


1 
INDEX                                         309 

T 

Veneering  concrete  surfaces,  130 
Vibration  of  buildings,  53 

Tanks,  207 

ciipacity  of,  ;U1 

W 

.standard  dinicnsion.s  of,  SIO 

Tar  concrete  floors,  102 

Walls,  188 

Tee  l)euins,  118 

Wall  purlin.s,  size  of,  388 

Textile  mills,  heating  of,  240 

Waste  heat,  utilization  of,  236 

Theory,  applied  to  concrete  build 

"g. 

Waterjjroofing  concrete,  123 

109 

Water  supply,  17-297 

Tie  U'am  bracing,  384 

towers,  208 

Tile,  concrete,  201 

Weight  of  galvanized  iron  i>ii)es,  2)5 

Tooling  concrete,  IIW 

of  steel  frames  for  multi-story 

Track  arrangement  in  yards,  '.VM 

buildings.  100 

Train  she<l  roofs,  table  of,  07 

Welfare  features,  357 

Treati.scs  on  factory  buildings,  '.iH9 

Wind  pressure,  44 

Treatment  of  concrete  surfaces. 

127 

Windows,  190 

Tungsten  lamps,  2('>7 

Winnipeg   .shops    of    the    Canadian 

lighting  system,  274 

Northern   Ky,  28-20,  213 

Turntables,  210 

Woo<len  buildings,  52 

columns,  details  for,  04 

U 

Wood  block  floors,  159 
floors,  172 

Unit  frames  for  concrete  beams. 

119 

with  steel  beams,  174 

stresses,  47 

framing,  01 

United    Shoe    Machinery    Shops 

at 

mill  buildings,  cost  of,  05,  07 

Beverly,  100 

Working  units  for  concrete.  111 

I'pper  floors,  172 

Y 

V 

Yards,  arrangement  of,  25,  26,  35, 

Vacuum  system  of  heating,  239 

330 

MHfe 


